REESE  LIBRARY 

OF  THJ: 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

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^cerccd        */l  (^As  "  <          ,  i*<>  / 

/ 


SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 


DEVELOPED  FROM  PAGE'S  "MUTUAL  DUTIES  OF 

PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS,"  FROM  VARIOUS 

PUBLIC  REPORTS  AND  DOCUMENTS,  AND 

FROM  THE  BULLETINS  OF  THE 

NATIONAL  BUREAU  OF 

EDUCATION 


BY 

ROBERT  M.  KING 

INSTRUCTOR  IN  THE  INDIANAPOLIS  HIGH   SCHOOL 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


^^ 


NE W   YORK . :•  CINCINNATI  •  :•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN     BOOK    COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1894,  BY 
AMERICAN  BOOK  COMPANY. 


SCH.  INT.  &  BUT. 

E-P 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION  .                          5 

I.     DUTIES  OF  PARENTS 11 

II.     DUTIES  OF  TEACHERS       .......  45 

III.  DUTIES  OF  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 55 

IV.  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 73 

^j      '•  « 

V.     SCHOOL  HYGIENE 105 

\VL     ARBOR  DAY  CELEBRATIONS 123 

VII.     THE  DICTIONARY,  AND  How  TO  USE  IT.        .        .        .147 

VIII.     SCHOOL  LIBRARIES   .         .......  163 

IX.     SCHOOL  MORALS 181 

X.     SCHOOL  ETIQUETTE 191 

XI.     SCHOOL  CELEBRATIONS  AND  OBSERVANCES       .        .         .  207 

XII.     THE  TEACHER'S  INSTITUTE 239 

XIII.  TEACHERS'  READING  CIRCLES .267 

XIV.  PUPILS'  READING  CIRCLES 289 

XV.     THE  TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  OPINION      .         .  299 

OUTLINES  OF  READING  CIRCLE  WORK    ....  319 

a 


SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND   DUTIES 


INTRODUCTION 

IN  education  as  in  government,  in  literature,  in  science, 
and  in  every  phase  of  human  experience,  we  profit  by  look- 
ing backward  as  well  as  forward. 

In  every  age  there  are  men  who  stand  forth  in  bold  relief 
among  their  contemporaries,  and  leave  their  impress  upon 
succeeding  generations ;  there  are  occasions  which,  though 
perhaps  little  known  at  the  time,  become  historic  because  of 
their  influence  upon  the  future ;  there  are  words  of  wisdom 
fitly  spoken,  which  the  people  will  not  suffer  to  die,  but  to 
which  they  will  often  turn  in  succeeding  years  for  sugges- 
tion, inspiration,  and  guidance.  Such  a  man  and  such  words 
are  the  inspiration  of  this  volume. 

In  1838,  the  ninth  meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Instruction  was  held  at  Newburyport,  Massachusetts.  The 
Institute  was  the  precursor  of  the  National  Educational 
Association.  It  was  made  up,  for  the  most  part,  of  men 
from  the  New  England  States.  In  these  days  of  easy  and 
quick  travel,  thousands  of  men  and  women  of  the  rank  and 
file  of  the  army  of  teachers  gather  each  year  at  the  National 
meetings ;  at  that  time,  only  leaders  undertook  the  journey 
to  the  place  of  conference.  This  meeting  in  Newburyport 
was  attended  by  many  men  whose  broad  thinking  and  active 
efforts  produced  results  of  which  we  are  gathering  the 

5 


6  INTRODUCTION 

fruits  to-day  in  better  schools  and  better  citizenship.  Among 
them  were  Horace  Mann  and  David  Perkins  Page. 

Mr.  Page  was  at  this  time  in  his  twenty-eighth  year,  and 
was  Principal  of  the  English  High  School  at  Newburyport. 
He  was  already  attracting  attention  by  his  ability  as  a 
teacher,  and  by  his  interest  in  his  profession,  and  at  this 
meeting  he  was  honored  with  a  prominent  place  on  the  pro- 
gramme of  exercises. 

His  theme,  which  grew  out  of  the  experiences  of  his  own 
teaching,  was  The  Mutual  Duties  of  Parents  and  Teachers. 
His  address  was  a  manly  plea  for  cooperation.  He  placed 
matters  in  a  new  light.  There  is  an  old  saying,  "  As  is  the 
teacher,  so  is  the  school."  True  as  this  is,  there  is  another 
equally  true:  "As  is  the  community,  so  is  the  school." 
The  school  is  a  safe  index  to  the  spirit  and  advancement 
of  the  people.  It  had  been  customary,  and  too  often  still 
is  customary,  to  throw  upon  the  teacher  the  entire  respon- 
sibility for  the  shortcomings  of  the  school.  Mr.  Page 
revealed  to  parents  the  fact  that  the  teacher  also  has  a 
side  to  present,  and  even  insisted  that  parents  might  be 
called  upon  for  explanations  and  apologies.  He  said  that 
there  was  nowhere,  at  that  time,  the  cooperation  between 
citizens  and  teachers  which  is  necessary  to  the  life  of  the 
good  school.  The  speaker  called  the  attention  of  parents 
for  the  first  time  publicly  to  their  duties  toward  the  teach- 
ers, and  enumerated  what  he  conceived  to  be  the  mutual 
duties  of  each. 

The  address  was  heard  with  the  greatest  interest  and 
enthusiasm.  At  its  close,  Horace  Mann  arose  to  commend 
it.  He  called  it  the  greatest  educational  document  ever  read 
before  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction.  He  went  fur- 
ther, and  declared  it  the  greatest  address  on  practical  edu- 
cational matters  ever  delivered  before  any  body  of  educators. 
He  measured  it  by  its  probable  influence  in  bringing  about 
the  cooperation  that  was  so  much  desired.  He  admired  it 
for  its  insistent  boldness.  To-day  it  would  not  be  remarka- 


IN  TE  OD  UCTION  7 

ble  for  that  quality,  but  in  1838  it  was  a  remarkable 
address. 

Its  influence  has  fulfilled  Mr.  Mann's  prediction.  It  has 
been  a  powerful  agent  in  the  advancement  of  the  schools  to 
their  present  position;  and  so  long  as  there  is  need  of 
cooperation  in  school  work,  the  address  should  continue  to 
live  and  exert  its  influence. 

Mr.  Mann  recognized  the  value  of  giving  it  widespread 
attention,  and  moved,  at  the  close  of  his  remarks,  that  5000 
copies  (a  large  number  for  those  days)  be  printed  and 
distributed  by  the  Institute.  The  motion  prevailed;  and 
in  the  same  year  Ticknor,  of  Boston,  published  it.  Only  a 
few  copies  of  the  original  pamphlet  are  now  in  existence. 
The  copy  from  which  extracts  have  been  made  for  this  book 
belongs  to  the  daughter  of  Mr.  Page. 

Since  the  time  of  the  Newburyport  meeting,  a  new  factor 
has  come  into  prominence  in  school  affairs.  In  nearly  all 
the  States,  the  educational. affairs  are  administered  by  school 
boards,  trustees,  directors,  or  committeemen,  as  they  are 
variously  named.  In  the  early  times,  the  school  affairs  were 
governed  directly  by  the  citizens,  acting  in  town  meeting  or 
in  some  other  way,  or  the  management  of  the  school  was 
the  minor  duty  of  another  officer ;  but  it  is  now  almost 
universally  the  custom  to  give  its  care  to  officers  chosen 
mainly  for  that  purpose.  Instead  of  its  being  a  matter  of 
cooperation  between  two  parties,  there  are  now  three  who 
must  work  together  harmoniously  and  enthusiastically  for 
the  good  of  citizenship.  To  secure  this  cooperation  where 
it  does  not  exist,  it  is  only  necessary  to  point  out  its  need 
and  to  suggest  duties  which  may  not  be  clear  at  first  sight. 

If  the  parties  to  this  mutual  understanding  have  been 
increased  in  so  important  a  measure,  the  subjects  with  which 
they  have  to  deal  have  been  vastly  extended,  as  well.  The 
common  purpose,  common  understanding,  and  cordial  coop- 
eration must  be  applied  in  our  day  to  many  phases  of 
educational  development  which  were  unknown  or  little 


8  INTRODUCTION 

considered  in  the  time  of  Page.  To  present  these  to  the 
consideration  of  teachers,  school  officers,  and  parents  is  but 
to  carry  out  to  their  logical  conclusion  the  all-important 
suggestions  of  Page's  remarkable  address. 

This  book  has  been  prepared  with  a  view  to  bringing 
down  to  the  present  date  the  doctrine  of  cooperation  in 
school  interests,  with  all  that  it  implies  of  enlightened, 
harmonious,  and  effective  work  in  the  interests  of  popular 
education.  This  being  its  plan  and  purpose,  the  writer  has 
drawn  freely  from  all  sources  which  have  presented  them- 
selves. The  progress  of  the  cause  of  popular  education  is 
nowhere  more  clearly  shown  than  in  the  discussions  of  our 
leading  teachers  and  in  the  various  special  reports  and 
manuals  issued  from  time  to  time  by  school  officials  and 
State  departments  of  education.  The  extracts  from  the 
works  of  Longfellow,  Whittier,  Lowell,  Emerson,  Holmes, 
Aldrich,  Lucy  Larcom,  and  Bryant  are  used  by  permission 
of  and  special  arrangement  with  the  publishers,  Messrs. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  and  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Acknowledgments  are  due  to  Chancellor  Payne  of  the 
University  of  Nashville  for  permission  to  use  extracts  from 
his  works  in  the  chapter  on  Teachers'  Institutes ;  and  to 
Commissioner  Harris  of  the  National  Bureau  of  Education 
for  the  privilege  of  using  material  from  the  bulletins  of  the 
Bureau,  especially  in  the  chapters  on  School  Architecture 
and  School  Hygiene. 

As  the  work  has  been  compiled  with  a  special  view  to  the 
needs  of  Teachers'  Beading  Circles,  it  is  divided  into  parts 
corresponding  to  the  months  of  the  Beading  Circle  year  and 
provided  with  Outlines  of  Beading  Circle  work. 

B.  M.  K. 

INDIANAPOLIS,  March,  1895. 


I 

DUTIES   OF   PARENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

DUTIES  OF  PARENTS1 

Need  of  Sympathy  between  Teachers  and  Parents.  —  The 
profession  of  the  teacher  is  certainly  an  important  one.  It 
should  be  a  nappy  one.  Adverse  influences  ought  to  be 
removed,  and  the  teacher  left  free  to  devise  his  own  plans 
and  to  find  his  enjoyment  in  witnessing  the  success  attend- 
ant on  their  execution. 

We  would  not  ask  for  greater  emolument  —  though,  when 
we  consider  that  the  teacher's  best  years  are  spent  in  his 
duties,  and  after  his  best  years  are  passed  away  an  enlight- 
ened community  usually  judges  him  not  only  unfit  for 
school-keeping  but  also  unfit  for  anything  else,  we  are  con- 
strained to  believe  that  the  matter  of  compensation  has  been 
little  enough  considered.  We  would  not  ask  for  greater 
respect  and  attention.  We  believe  that  the  instructor  has 
received  his  share  of  these  in  proportion  to  his  merits. 
But  we  would  ask  for  sympathy  —  for  soul-cheering  sym- 
pathy —  on  the  part  of  parents  of  those  whom  we  are  called 
to  instruct.  We  would  plead  for  their  aid  as  far  as  they 
can  assist  us.  With  that,  we  could  go  to  the  work  with  at 
least  some  gleamings  of  encouragement. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  enter  into  a  detailed  enumeration 
of  the  difficulties  of  the  teacher.  It  is  sufficient  for  us  to 
allege  that  a  large  part  of  them  have  their  origin  in  the  want 
of  cooperation,  or  the  misdirected  influence  of  the  parents. 

1  David  P.  Page  (see  Introd.,  p.  5). 
11 


12  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Nor  shall  we  labor  on  this  occasion  to  arrange  proofs  of 
this  position.  It  is  a  remark  among  teachers,  as  common 
as  household  words,  that  "  teaching  might  be  a  delightful 
employment  if  one  could  take  his  pupils  entirely  out  of  the 
reach  of  their  parents."  The  experience  of  those  who  have 
had  charge  of  academies  in  the  country,  where  the  pupils 
chiefly  were  away  from  their  own  homes,  goes  to  establish 
the  same  point ;  and  any  one  who  has  attentively  watched 
the  course  of  events  in  one  of  those  important  communities 
which  we  call  a  school  district  cannot  have  failed  to  draw 
the  conclusion  to  which  we  have  come. 

We  would  not  advocate,  however,  the  removal  of  the 
young  from  their  parents  for  the  purposes  of  education. 
We  believe  that  the  Creator  has  wisely  established  the 
family  relation,  and  that  it  is  our  duty  to  draw  out  and  ren- 
der available  its  uses,  rather  than,  by  extinction  of  the  rela- 
tion, to  destroy  its  abuses.  We  believe  that  the  child  can 
be  best  educated  among  those  of  his  own  kindred,  provided 
parents  and  teachers  can  by  any  means  be  made  to  under- 
stand one  another's  relative  duties  and  obligations. 

Between  parties  who  are  so  often  brought  into  collision,  it 
is  highly  desirable  that  there  shall  exist  some  well-defined, 
mutual  understanding.  In  many  of  our  public  schools 
the  usefulness  of  one  teacher  after  another  is  effectually 
destroyed ;  the  youth  suffering  not  only  from  the  interrup- 
tion of  their  studies,  but  also  from  the  angry  looks  and 
harsh  words  witnessed  at  home,  and  the  parents,  meantime, 
working  themselves  up  into  the  exercise  of  bad  feeling, 
where  nothing  is  designed  but  good. 

They  are  often  parents  who  feel  sufficiently  the  impor- 
tance of  education,  whose  impulses  are  sufficiently  powerful, 
if  only  moved  in  the  right  direction,  to  carry  them  into  the 
performance  of  every  good  word  and  work.  They  make,  it 
may  be,  liberal  provision  for  the  support  of  their  schools ; 
but,  after  all,  the  atmosphere  is  unhealthy.  One  sun  after 
another  rises  upon  them,  only  to  raise  the  vapor  and  the 


DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  13 

mildew.  Shorn  of  their  beams,  and  robbed  of  their  warmth, 
they  go  down  in  clouds  and  tempests,  while  the  district  over 
which  they  have  passed  is  left  in  still  greater  darkness,  and 
the  chill  and  gloom  of  a  winter's  midnight  yet  hang  over 
them.  Why  all  this  waste  of  strength,  of  money,  and  of 
talent  ?  Why  so  often  must  the  teacher  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  parent  on  the  other  row  in  opposite  directions? 
Let  us,  for  a  few  moments,  inquire  into  the  causes  of  the 
difficulty,  and  then  we  may  hope  better  to  adopt  a  preven- 
tion or  devise  a  remedy.  What,  then,  are  some  of  the 
causes  of  misunderstanding  between  parents  and  teachers  ? 

Causes  of  Misunderstanding.  —  1.  Parents  do  not  suffi- 
ciently feel  the  importance  of  schools.  After  all  that  has 
been  said  in  our  halls  of  legislation,  in  our  political  assem- 
blies, in  our  public  journals,  and  in  our  pulpits,  upon  the 
importance  to  a  free  and  independent  people  of  a  good 
education,  there  are  many,  very  many,  who  have  no  ade- 
quate notion  of  its  value.  This  lack  of  appreciation  will 
show  itself  in  many  ways  to  make  the  duties  of  the  teacher 
more  arduous.  One  man  keeps  his  son  from  the  school  on 
the  slightest  occasion ;  another,  in  the  same  spirit,  refuses  to 
furnish  the  various  facilities  which  the  teacher  may  deem 
necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  study.  Kow,  while  such 
is  the  state  of  feeling  in  the  parent's  mind,  the  business  of 
instructing  his  child,  who  will  most  assuredly  partake  of 
his  father's  spirit,  will  be  more  arduous  than  the  making 
of  bricks  and  furnishing  straw  under  the  taskmasters  of  the 
Egyptian  monarch. 

2.  A  false  standard  of  excellence  and  attainment  for  our 
schools  sometimes  exists  in  the  minds  of  parents.  The 
standard  of  their  own  attainments  and  of  the  schools  of 
their  boyhood  is  put  by  many  parents  for  the  youth  and 
schools  of  the  present  day.  They  seem  not  to  reflect  that 
a  child,  in  order  to  maintain  his  comparative  standing  in 
society  now,  must  know  more  than  if  he  had  lived  fifty 
years  ago.  The  progress  in  education  —  without  claiming 


14  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND    7>r///  s 

much  for  the  "march  of  intellect"  having  kept  paee  in 
some  ratio  with  other  things,  the  whole  body  of  the  peoph- 
are  more  advanced.  Having  in  view  a  standard  so  low,  tin- 
parent  grudgingly  furnishes  the  books  and  apparatus  which 
may  be  needed  to  carry  his  son  beyond  his  own  level.  He 
sees  no  beauty  or  fitness  in  the  plans  and  measures  of  the 
teacher,  so  unlike  those  of  the  instructor  of  his  own  early 
years.  He  has  serious  objection  to  all  classification  in  tin1 
school,  because,  as  he  says,  he  studied  "  single  h; -.nded  "  ;  and 
he  is  unwilling  that  his  child  should  be  compelled  by  any 
such  "machinery"  to  go  beyond  the  limits  prescribed  in  his 
own  mind. 

3.  There  is  often  a  suspicions  spirit  on  tin-  part  of  parents. 
So  universally  does  this  operate  on  the  minds  of  some  — 
induced,  perhaps,  by  some  failure  or  deception  in  a  former 
teacher  —  that  for  weeks,  in  many  districts,  they  seem  to 
stand  on  the  opposite  side  to  watch  for  the  appearance  of 
some  fault.     It  would  seem  to  be  their  motto:  "We  will 
believe  no  good  till  we  see  it."     The  children,  always  ready 
imitators  and  quick  of  discernment,  catch  the  same  spirit, 
and  watch  for  some  imperfection,  which  they  feel  encouraged 
to  report  at  home  as  soon  as  they  see  it   or   think   they 
see  it.     Faults,  and  not  excellences,  make  the  first  impres- 
sion, both  at  school  and  at  home;  and  the  teacher,  under 
such  circumstances,  must  be  a  wonderful  man  and  wonder- 
fully fortunate  if  he  can  ever  attain  to  a  good  degree  of 
their  confidence.     If  he  does  gain  their  confidence,  it   must 
be  after  long  trial,  patient  effort,  tried  as  by  fire. 

4.  There  is  sometimes  a  disposition  to  dictate.     In  New 
England,  men  have  often  some  adroitness  in  various  kinds 
of  business.     The  farmer,   for  instance,   if  he  be   a   true 
Yankee,  may  at  the  same  time  be  a  carpenter,  a  wheelwright, 
a  shoemaker,  and  a  blacksmith  —  for  all  his  own  purposes. 
If  he  does  not  operate  in  all  these  departments,  he  feels 
perfectly  at  liberty  to  direct  how  the  work  shall  be   per- 
formed for  him.     So  most  parents  feel  disposed  to  give  les- 


DirriKti  <>}••  /M// /-;.vra  1^ 

••  r.      If  they  call  a  physician,  he  may 

adminiMer   10   In     patient    cither  calomel   or  lobelia,  as  he 
chooses.      lint    the  teacher  HIU  -ar  their  direction  in 

,.  And  tin-  most  unfortunate  part  of  it  is,  that 
the  dictation  usually  conies  to  the  teacher  through  the  pupil, 
who,  by  the  time  he  delivers  his  message,  has  pretty  thor- 
oughly imbibed  the  spirit  of  it.  What  part  of  it  might  be 
yielded  by  the  parent  is  sure  to  be  insisted  on  as  a  matter 
of  ri.-.fht  by  the  child. 

r*.    Then-  is  a  grant  of  personal  acquaintance  between  the 
parti         I  Q    many  of  our  schools  spend  months, 

and   in  som«  ears,  with  youths  whose  parents 

known.  The  parents,  during  this  time, 
have  probably  formed  their  opinions  of  the  teacher,  per- 
haps ha  sed  them  freely  either  for  or  against  him, 
and  yet  hav  :.oken  a  word  with  him,  and  very  likely 
i  know  him  by  si^ht.  They  can  understand  but 
little  of  his  character,  of  his  temper,  of  his  interest  in  his 
school.  All  th«y  e;,n  know  of  him  is  derived  through  their 
children  —  a  knowledge  which,  to  say  the  most  for  it,  may 

••ht  or  may  be  wrong. 

Let  us  not  be  understood  to  place  all  the  causes  of  these 
evils  at  the  door  of  the  parents.  We  say  it  with  sorrow  — 
teachers  have  too  often  rendered  themselves  unworthy  of 
the  confidence  and  cooperation  of  parents.  It  must  be 
admitted  that  the  office  of  the  teacher  has  been  filled  not 
unirefjiicntly  with  the  personifications  of  indolence,  selfish- 
.  and  imbecility.  Men  have  sometimes  entered  upon 
the  ;  of  teaching  from  no  higher  motive  than  their 

incapacity  to  gain  a  livelihood  in  any  other  way.  Through 
the  supincness  of  school  committees  and  the  misdirected 
sympathy  of  some  of  their  influential  friends,  there  have 
been  not  a  few  men  who  have  gained  their  situations  by  the 
paper  (pialilications  which  they  carried  in  their  pocket- 
books,  and  who,  so  far  as  usefulness  in  their  schools  was 
concerned,  might  as  well  have  been  themselves  paper  men. 


16  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

The  regular  (professional)  teacher,  too,  may  have  his 
faults.  He  may  have  but  little  in  his  character  which  is 
attractive  or  conciliatory.  He  may  be  too  self-sufficient, 
pedantic,  or  haughty.  He  may  announce  his  plans  without 
any  apparent  wish  to  explain  them,  should  he  be  reasonably 
requested  to  do  so.  He  may  be  an  "  off-side  "  man.  If  the 
people  among  whom  he  resides  put  the  wheel  in  motion  and 
excite  the  electric  fluid,  he  may  refuse  to  hold  the  conductor, 
and  so  no  spark  will  be  kindled.  Should  they  bow  in  the 
street,  he  may  set  his  face  like  flint  and  "  let  his  course  be 
right  onward,'7  and  thus  chill  all  their  good  feelings  in  the 
bud  and  seal  up  by  a  relentless  frost  all  the  fountains  of 
mutual  sociality. 

Where  the  foregoing  causes  exist,  they  must  always  pro- 
duce a  most  unhappy  state  of  things ;  and  the  teacher^who 
attempts  to  go  forward  while  they  operate  will  most  certainly 
rue  the  day  when  he  first  set  out  to  teach. 

How  to  Avoid  these  Evils.  —  It  is  desirable  that  all  should 
understand  the  means  of  avoiding  these  evils  if  they  do  not 
exist,  or  of  removing  them  where  they  have  gained  a  place. 
In  education,  as  in  all  other  things,  prevention  is  better 
than  cure.  The  teacher  will  therefore  spare  himself  many 
pangs  and  secure  the  foundation  of  much  usefulness  if  he 
can  so  conduct  matters  as  to  prevent  the  existence  of  any 
cause  of  difficulty  between  himself  and  the  parents  of  his 
pupils.  This  business  of .  prevention  lies  partly  with  the 
teacher  and  partly  with  the  parents  themselves. 

He  should  study  faithfully  and  feelingly  the  relations  he 
sustains  to  his  pupils  and  to  their  friends ;  he  should  care- 
fully perform  every  known  duty  in  its  time  and  after  its 
manner,  according  to  the  dictates  of  his  own  conscience. 
Let  him  do  this,  and  he  can  be  happy  in  his  own  mind.  Yet 
when  he  has  done  all  he  can  do,  the  question  of  his  success 
will  depend  very  much  upon  the  parents  of  his  pupils. 
They  must  come  forward  and  crown  the  work,  or  very  much 
will  be  wanting  after  all. 


DUTIES   OF  PARENTS  17 

Let  us,  then,  devote  a  few  pages  to  the  consideration  of 
the  duties  of  parents.  On  entering  this  part  of  the  subject, 
we  feel  an  impulse  to  speak  plainly  and  feelingly.  It  will 
be  difficult  to  define  all  the  duties  of  parents.  It  will  be 
our  object  to  speak  of  those  which  most  strongly  suggest 
themselves. 

Duties  of  Parents.  — 1.  Parents  should  reciprocate  the  at- 
tempts of  the  teacher  toward  a  mutual  understanding.  It 
will  discourage  the  most  faithful  instructor  if,  at  the  outset, 
he  meets  with  coldness  and  unconcern.  The  parents  should 
never  forget  that  the  teacher  is  their  appointed  coadjutor, 
for  the  time  being,  to  educate  their  children.  As  they  love 
their  children  and  desire  their  advantage,  so  should  they  be 
ready  to  encourage  all  the  advances  which  he  may  make 
towards  the  better  understanding  of  their  wishes  and  inten- 
tions, and  the  explanation  of  his  plans. 

2.  Parents  should  listen  candidly  to  the  plans  of  the 
teacher  and,  unless  they  are  manifestly  wrong,  should  do 
all  in  their  power  to  aid  him  in  the  execution  of  them.  We 
say,  unless  they  are  manifestly  wrong.  Many  parents  sup- 
pose that  if  a  teacher's  modes  and  plans  are  not  the  best  — 
in  their  opinion  the  very  best  —  they  are  under  no  obligation 
to  help  them  forward.  But  we  say  that  every  teacher  may 
not  have  the  wisdom  to  devise  abstractly  the  best  plans,  yet 
most  likely  such  as  he  will  devise  will  be  the  best  for  him. 
He  has  taken  much  time  and,  after  long  solicitude  and  many 
desires  to  be  useful,  he  has  fixed  upon  a  course  —  one  which, 
under  all  the  circumstances,  may  seem  to  him  the  best. 

Xow,  suppose  this  course  shall  chance  to  strike  the  parents' 
minds  unfavorably ;  shall  they  at  once  abandon  the  teacher, 
give  up  all  hopes  of  benefit  from  the  school,  and  withdraw 
their  cooperation?  Is  it  not  rather  their  duty  either  to 
suggest  "  a  more  excellent  way  "  —  which  they  may  ever  do 
if  they  have  a  right  spirit  —  or  to  give  their  cooperation  in 
carrying  out  his  plans,  such  as  they  are  ?  The  teacher,  be 
it  remembered,  is  appointed  to  conduct  the  school  for  a 

SCH.  INT.  &  BUT. — 2 


18  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

'  time ;  and  unless  his  services  and  his  plans,  however  inferior 
they  may  be,  are  rendered  useful,  the  youths  are,  for  the 
time,  losers. 

Parents  may  be  as  particular  as  they  please  in  the  choice 
of  their  teacher,  and  in  requiring  the  highest  rate  of  qual- 
ifications ;  but  after  they  have  accepted  him  as  teacher  they 
cannot,  without  a  breach  of  contract,  withhold  from  him 
their  cooperation.  If  they  have  been  imposed  upon — if  the 
incumbent  is  found  to  be  absolutely  incompetent  —  they 
may  decently  secure  his  dismissal  and  the  appointment  of 
another;  but  to  continue  in  office  a  teacher  in  whom  they 
have  no  confidence  and  whom  they  refuse  to  aid  is  a  breach 
of  good  faith.  It  is  an  illustration  of  the  maxim  that  "  two 
wrongs  can  never  make  a  right." 

As  a  general  rule  (we  repeat  it),  the  teacher's  own  plans 
will  be  found  decidedly  the  best  for  Mm,  and  it  is  not  good 
policy  for  parents  upon  slight  cause  to  attempt  an  obtrusive 
interference.  The  right  of  adopting  his  own  measures,  as 
a  general  thing,  should  be  conceded  to  the  teacher,  and  all 
parents  will  find  their  own  interests  promoted  and  their 
children's  advancement  accelerated  in  cheerfully  aiding  him. 

3.  Parents  should  thankfully  listen  to  the  teacher's  faith- 
ful account  of  their  children,  even  if  that  account  be  not  a 
flattering  one.  We  have  before  said  that  the  teacher  should 
be  frank,  always  telling  the  parents  the  whole  truth  and 
nothing  but  the  truth.  This  must  sometimes  be  of  itself  an 
unpleasant  duty.  It  is  self-denying  enough  for  the  teacher 
to  make  an  unfavorable  statement  demanded  by  his  duty 
under  the  best  circumstances,  and  the  trial  is  peculiarly 
severe  when  the  parent  receives  it  with  expressions  of  dis- 
pleasure or  of  undisguised  reproach.  Nothing  should  deter 
the  teacher,  however,  from  the  faithful  discharge  of  this 
duty ;  and  he  has  a  just  right  to  expect  cordiality  and  grati- 
tude on  the  part  of  the  parent  for  his  faithfulness,  whether 
his  report  be  bright  or  dark.  The  good  and  wise  parent 
will  always  exhibit  them. 


DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  19 

4.  Parents  should  visit  the  schools  which  their  children 
attend.     Without  this  they  can  have  no  very  correct  idea  of 
the  state  of  things  in  the  schoolroom.     Common  report  con- 
cerning the  affairs  of  a  school  is  not  always  correct.     By 
visiting  the  school,  parents  can  at  once  see,  if  the  teacher 
is   Jionest,    the    comparative    standing    of    their    children. 
They  will  become  more  interested  in  the  objects  and  busi- 
ness of  the  school,  and  —  what  will  be  of  infinite  worth  both 
to  teacher  and  pupils  —  it  will  convince  them  all  that  the 
parents  have  some  sense  of  the  importance  of  the  improve- 
ment made  there.     The  pupils  will  be  quickened  to  diligence 
and  the  teacher  to  activity  and  faithfulness.     And  is  not  the 
rate  of  purchase  very  low  when  the  advantage  is  so  great  ? 

5.  Parents  should   promptly  and  cheerfully  supply  the 
required  books  and  apparatus  for  the  school.     The  teacher 
cannot  work  without  tools ;  the  parent  ought  not  to  expect 
it.     If  a  parent  has  any  doubt  about  the  propriety  of  a  call 
for  a  new  book,  he  should  at  once  see  the  teacher.     Never 
should  he  send  an  uncivil  or  angry  message  by  the  child. 
An  interview  of  five  minutes  may  put  the  matter  peaceably 
at  rest,  and  save  both  parties  much  unpleasant  feeling. 

Besides,  schoolbooks  are  now  less  expensive  than  for- 
merly. The  parent  in  most  cases  can  better  afford  to  buy  a 
book  than  to  spend  his  time  in  talking  about  it.  Often  the 
pupil  loses  more  by  a  delay  of  one  week  than  the  value 
of  the  book  many  times  told,  for  there  is  no  estimating 
improvement  by  dollars  and  cents.  We  grant  that  an  over- 
supply  and  too  frequent  changes  of  schoolbooks  are  a  great 
and  sore  evil;  but  this,  at  least,  is  not  the  fault  of  the 
instructor.  No  good  can  possibly  come  of  disputing  a  ques- 
tion with  him  which  has  been  settled  already  by  the  school 
authorities. 

6.  Parents  should  see  that  their  children  are  decently 
clothed  and  cleanly  in  their  persons.     This  duty  belongs 
mainly  to  the  mother,  and  her  character  may  be  very  readily 
seen  as   reflected  in  the   persons   of   her   children.      The 


20  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

teacher  has  a  right  to  expect  of  the  parents  the  faithful 
performance  of  this  duty.  He  ought  not  to  be  insulted  with 
filthiness ;  and  surely  he  need  not  be,  so  long  as  soft  water 
falls  in  rich  abundance  from  the  heavens,  and  a  pair  of 
scissors  and  a  comb  are  possessed  by  every  family.  He 
can  have  no  heart  to  come  in  contact  with  pupils  who 
are  sometimes  so  sadly  neglected  in  this  particular.  This 
point,  however,  is  so  obvious  that  we  need  not  waste 
words  upon  it. 

7.  Parents  are  bound  to  secure  the  constant  attendance 
of  their  children.  This  is  no  trifling  article  of  their  duty. 
Perhaps  there  is  no  one  thing  to  be  named  which  contrib- 
utes so  largely  to  the  perplexities  of  the  teacher  and  to  the 
injury  of  our  public  schools  as  irregular  attendance.  Eeal 
illness  of  the  child  is  a  good  excuse  for  absence  from  school ; 
and  perhaps  we  may  add,  in  some  instances,  illness  in  the 
family.  But  beyond  these,  it  seems  to  us,  there  can  be  no 
good  reason  for  keeping  a  scholar  from,  his  school.  It  is 
discouraging  to  see  for  what  trifling  causes  many  of  the 
children  are  kept  away. 

Frequently  it  happens  that  some  errand  as  trifling  —  if 
we  may  be  allowed  to  be  specific  —  as  the  purchase  of  a  cent's 
worth  of  yeast  is  made  the  occasion  of  a  half  day's  absence 
from  school,  occasioning  thereby  an  injury  to  the  child's 
mind  which  cannot  be  estimated  in  dollars  and  cents.  Who 
can  compute  the  amount  of  idle  habits  of  study  having  their 
foundation  in  that  indifference  to  education  which,  for  some 
trifling  errand,  permits  the  child  to  be  away  from  his  class 
and  thus  practically  teaches  him  to  consider  his  school  a 
very  cheap  affair  ? 

Every  school,  if  the  teacher  would  lay  out  his  strength  to 
advantage,  should  be  classified.  The  teacher's  mind  must 
act,  as  far  as  practicable,  upon  masses  of  mind.  But  irregu- 
larity of  attendance  is  most  ruinous  to  classification.  A 
pupil  absent  one  half  the  time  is,  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
of  the  school,  absent  all  the  time.  One  day  he  is  absent, 


DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  21 

and,  of  course,  loses  all  that  day's  lessons ;  the  next  day  he 
is  present,  but  is  still  deficient  in  his  lessons,  because,  as  he 
says  to  his  teacher,  "  I  was  absent  yesterday  and,  not  know- 
ing where  to  study,  I  have  not  studied  at  all !  "  Again  he 
is  absent  —  again  he  is  present.  The  same  result  follows, 
and  at  the  week's  end  he  has  learned  nothing  as  it  should 
be  learned.  Such  is  the  effect  upon  the  pupil  himself. 

But  the  difficulty  is  not  now  half  told.  He  is  a  member 
of  the  school  —  the  teacher  must  consider  him  such ;  and  as 
the  parents  of  such  pupils  often  make  fair  promises  for  the 
future,  the  teacher  feels  bound  to  keep  him,  if  possible, 
along  with  his  class.  To  effect  this,  the  class  must  be 
often  put  back  on  his  account,  which  operates  as  a  severe 
discouragement  to  them. 

Sometimes  the  instructor  is  obliged  to  devote  particular 
attention  to  this  pupil  singly,  by  which  the  other  pupils  are 
robbed  of  the  proportion  of  his  time  which  is  their  due. 
They  are,  moreover,  obliged  to  suffer  an  injury  the  most 
unpleasant  of  all.  For  when  pupils  who  are  always  at  their 
posts  have  learned  their  lessons  well,  it  is  cruel  in  the  last 
degree  that  they  should  be  deprived  of  the  pleasure  of  show- 
ing their  faithfulness  —  the  pleasure  of  a  good  recitation. 

Nor  is  this  all.  The  teacher,  the  unthought-of  teacher,  is 
not  made  of  iron  or  brass.  His  patience  being  so  frequently, 
so  thoughtlessly,  and  so  unnecessarily  taxed  and  his  best 
efforts  being  so  ill-requited,  he  must,  unless  he  is  super- 
human, relax  his  exertions.  He  will  find  it  next  to  impos- 
sible for  a  series  of  weeks  or  months,  after  having  labored 
faithfully  without  success,  to  maintain  his  interest  and  his 
efficiency  under  all  the  discouraging  circumstances  of  the 
case.  As  soon  as  his  spirits  flag,  the  whole  school  will 
imperceptibly  catch  the  feeling,  and  they  are  all  sufferers. 
This  is  not  an  extreme  case.  It  is  not  a  fancy  picture. 
It  is  not  speculation.  It  is  history !  And  I  am  sorry  to  be 
obliged  to  add,  it  is  the  exact  history  of  most  of  our  public 
schools ! 


22  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Can  any  wonder,  then,  that  we  earnestly  urge  that  parents 
should  cooperate  with  the  teacher  in  this  particular  ?  And 
shall  it  ever  be  that  for  some  trifling  errand  which,  by 
early  rising,  may  be  as  well  done  long  before  school  hours, 
or  for  some  pretext  originating  in  the  imbecility  or  lack 
of  forethought  of  our  children's  natural  guardians  —  must 
it  ever  be  that  the  teacher's  life  shall  be  a  life  of  per- 
plexity, and  the  design  of  our  public  school  system  shall  be 
so  far  frustrated  ? 

What  has  been  said  of  irregular  attendance  will  apply 
with  equal  force  to  want  of  punctuality  to  the  hour  of  open- 
ing the  school.  The  reasons  for  tardiness  are  often  more 
futile,  if  possible,  than  those  for  entire  absence.  The  effects 
upon  the  school  are  nearly  the  same ;  for  the  current  proverb, 
"  better  late  than  never,"  will  hardly  hold  in  this  case.  But 
the  effects  of  tardiness  are  more  disastrous  upon  the  child. 
He  is  allowed  to  be  his  own  teacher  of  a  most  deleterious 
lesson.  Let  it  never  be  forgotten  that  it  is  just  as  easy  to 
be  strictly  punctual  as  otherwise,  and  the  parent  who  will 
not  lay  the  foundation  of  a  habit  so  valuable  in  a  child, 
when  it  can  be  done  without  cost,  deserves  not  the  privilege 
of  being  a  parent.  He  betrays  his  trust !  He  injures  his 
own  child! 

8.  Parents  should  be  slow  to  condemn  the  teacher  for 
supposed  faults.  This  is  a  point  upon  which  many  are  apt 
to  act  wrongly.  Too  often  is  it  the  case  that  a  teacher  is 
tried  and  publicly  condemned  without  even  a  hearing. 
Some  troublesome,  precocious  youth,  who  has  received,  it 
may  be  very  justly,  some  proportionate  reward  for  his  deeds, 
determines  upon  revenge.  He  immediately  tells  his  story 
to  any  who  will  hear  it.  If  his  parents  are  inconsiderate 
and  encourage  him  to  go  on,  he  is  tempted  to  overreach  the 
truth  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  stop  short  of  it  on  the  other, 
till  he  succeeds  in  having  the  combustible  material  around 
him  lighted  into  a  flame.  Such  a  fire  is  seldom  kindled 
without  most  severely  scathing  somebody,  and  it  sometimes 


DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  23 

happens  that  those  most  burned  are  they  who  apply  the 
match  and  fan  the  flames. 

The  truth  is,  few  parents  are  capable  of  judging  at  the 
first  blush  upon  the  merits  of  a  case  which  they  have  not 
witnessed.  They  have  strong  partialities  in  favor  of  the 
complainant.  Then,  too,  they  have  but  very  inadequate 
views  of  the  difficulties  —  the  untold  and  untellable  difficul- 
ties —  with  which  the  teacher  must  daily  contend. 

We  undertake  to  say  that  parents  often  expect  more  of  a 
teacher  than  he  can  possibly  accomplish.  They  expect  him 
to  advance  their  children  in  learning,  without  making  proper 
allowance  for  the  difference  of  abilities  which  his  pupils 
possess.  Every  parent  wishes  his  son  to  be  foremost  in 
improvement,  and  he  expects  it,  because  he  wishes  it.  At 
the  same  time,  he  expects  the  school  to  be  a  perfect  pattern 
of  good  order,  because  in  his  family,  where  perhaps  he  has 
but  one  child,  he  has  never  known  an  insurmountable  diffi- 
culty. He  forgets  that  probably  fifty  other  parents  are 
expecting  for  their  children  as  much  as  he  for  his,  and  that 
the  teacher  is  laboring  with  a  laudable  ambition  to  do  faith- 
fully all  that  can  be  expected  of  him  with  some  three  or 
four  score  of  individuals  whose  tempers  and  capacities  and 
habits  are  as  different  as  their  countenances. 

In  judging  of  the  teacher's  government,  the  parent  com- 
monly compares  it  with  his  own  family  discipline,  because 
the  family  is  the  only  community  with  which  he  is  acquainted 
that  is  at  all  analogous  to  the  school.  He  forgets,  perhaps, 
his  own  recent  fits  of  impatience  even  among  his  little  circle 
of  some  half  a  dozen,  and  he  wonders  at  the  unrestrained 
and  unrestrainable  temper  of  the  schoolmaster  who,  it  is 
said,  was  not  quite  self-possessed  in  his  school  of  a  hundred. 

But  the  analogy  does  not  hold  between  the  family  and 
the  school.  The  parent  has  authority  in  the  premises  from 
which,  to  all  intents,  there  is  no  appeal ;  and  the  children 
know  it.  He  has  several  rooms  at  his  command  for  solitary 
confinement  or  for  private  reproof  and  reasoning.  More- 


24  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

over,  he  lias  the  advantage  of  knowing  perfectly  the  dis- 
position of  each  subject  of  his  authority,  and  may  always 
proceed  advisedly  in  the  adaptation  of  his  discipline.  He 
has  ample  leisure  for  the  purpose ;  for  if  his  business  be  press- 
ing during  the  day,  he  can  postpone  the  whole  matter  till 
the  calm  and  silent  hour  of  evening,  when,  unexcited  and 
undisturbed,  he  may  pursue  his  steady  purpose.  With  all 
these  advantages  it  would  be  strange  if  a  parent  could  not 
govern  his  own,  household  well  and  without  much  resort  to 
the  rod.  The  parent  may  well  wonder  at  himself  if  he  has 
not  good  discipline. 

But  the  case  is  not  thus  with  the  teacher.  His  authority 
in  these  latter  days  is  somewhat  questionable.  He  usually 
has  but  one  room  for  his  use,  and  that  one  often  too  small 
even  for  the  pursuit  of  the  more  quiet  duties  of  the  school. 
He  has  no  prison,  and  if  he  had,  he  has  no  authority  to  con- 
fine beyond  his  usual  school  hours.  He  has  no  allowances 
or  provisions  to  dispense  or  withhold.  He  cannot,  unless  his 
discernment  is  supernatural,  have  a  perfect  knowledge  of 
the  disposition  of  each  pupil. 

Hence  he  is,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  liable  to  mis- 
judgment  in  the  adaptation  of  his  means.  He  has  no  leisure. 
He  must  work  all  the  time,  for  his  reputation  depends  on 
his  success  in  teaching.  He  is  expected  to  advance  each 
pupil  daily.  He  has  not  the  time  to  adjust  all  his  measures 
by  deliberate  reflection.  He  cannot  always  put  off  the  case. 
His  little  community  probably  may  need  the  immediate  check 
which  the  punishment  will  give.  If  he  should  neglect  to 
work  the  pump,  the  ship  would  probably  sink  and  bury  him 
and  his  in  the  waves  of  insufferable  confusion.  Consider 
well  the  life  of  the  teacher.  He  must  apply  himself  con- 
stantly, and  often  to  numberless  things  at  the  same  time.  We 
are  told,  I  know,  that  the  teacher  should  do  but  one  thing  at 
a  time.  But  this  is  impossible.  Two  things  he  must  always 
do  at  once  —  he  must  govern  and  instruct.  He  can  never 
do  the  latter  without  having  upon  his  mind  the  former. 


DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  25 

It  is  this  double  attention  that  makes  his  life  a  weary  one. 
He  might  govern  with  comparative  ease  if  his  duty  ended 
there.  The  instruction  would  be  delightful  if  that  could  be 
pursued  alone.  But  they  must  go  together.  With  respect 
to  the  one,  not  a  mistake  must  pass  unnoticed.  Every  error 
in  declension  or  conjugation,  in  orthography  or  calculation, 
in  matter  or  manner,  must  be  detected  and  set  right ;  and,  at 
the  same  time,  the  stolen  whisper  must  be  heard,  the  clan- 
destine plaything  must  be  captured,  the  incipient  plot  must 
be  discovered,  the  arch  trick  must  be  anticipated,  the  idler 
must  be  watched,  the  wayward  reproved  and  set  right,  and 
the  stubborn  and  the  impudent,  the  coarse  and  the  turbu- 
lent, must  be  subdued.  All  these  things  must  go  together ; 
they  cannot  be  separated. 

Then,  in  ordinary  schools,  unforeseen  perplexities  will 
arise.  One  boy  has  lost  his  book ;  another  has  left  his  at 
home ;  another  makes  clamorous  complaints  of  some  injury 
done  him  by  his  neighbor ;  a  fourth  is  too  warm,  and  opens 
the  window ;  a  fifth  is  too  cold,  and  immediately  shuts  it  or 
applies  to  the  teacher  for  liberty  to  do  so.  Add  to  these 
the  perplexities  occasioned  by  late  attendance  and  frequent 
absence,  to  which  we  have  before  referred,  and  many  other 
things  not  mentioned,  and  who  can  wonder  that  the  teacher 
should  sometimes  be  a  little  in  doubt  as  to  the  best  mode  of 
procedure  in  his  discipline  ? 

We  do  not  name  these  things  to  complain  of  our  lot  as 
teachers.  That  is  the  profession  of  our  choice;  but  we 
name  them  to  show  why  the  parent  should  be  slow  in  con- 
demning the  teacher  for  supposed  faults. 

9.  We  add  but  one  thing  more.  Parents  should  give  to 
teachers  their  sympathy.  Some  parents,  ready  to  meet  the 
requisite  expenses  of  their  children's  tuition,  ready  to  coop- 
erate with  the  teacher  in  all  laudable  plans  and  aims  for  the 
welfare  of  his  pupils,  are  still  lamentably  deficient  in  this 
one  Christian  grace  and  virtue.  They  seem  to  have  no  con- 
ception that  he  has  wants,  like  other  men ;  that  time,  with 


26  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

its  free  use  and  unfettered  enjoyment,  is  also  to  him  a 
blessed  commodity ;  that  confinement  within  the  four  walls 
of  a  schoolroom,  month  after  month,  does  not  necessarily 
leave  him  no  tastes  to  gratify  beyond.  They  do  not  seem 
to  realize  that  the  teacher  has  nerves  that  need  relaxation, 
languid  pulses  to  be  revived,  and  wasting  strength  to  be 
renewed. 

We  claim  the  sympathy  —  the  spontaneous,  grateful  sym- 
pathy of  the  parents ;  sympathy  for  the  perplexities,  the 
toils,  the  nameless  trials  that  overtask  the  mind,  unnerve 
the  frame,  and  wear  down  the  strength  of  the  studious, 
faithful  teacher. 

Underestimation  of  the  Teacher's  Services.  —  It  must  be 
admitted  that  many  persons  estimate  the  services  of  the 
schoolmaster  in  very  much  the  same  way  in  which  they 
estimate  the  services  of  the  day-laborer  in  their  employ. 
The  man  of  business  pays  the  clerk  in  the  countingroom 
and  the  cartman  on  the  wharf,  and  meets  the  term  bill  of 
his  child's  teacher,  and  in  each  case  feels  in  his  own  mind 
alike  absolved  from  further  obligation. 

Obligation !  Obligation  from  a  parent  toward  a  teacher ! 
We  have  heard  the  word  sneered  at,  the  idea  treated  with 
contempt.  But  as  there  is  no  estimating  the  amount  of  good 
or  evil  influence  upon  the  ductile  mind  of  a  child  —  extend- 
ing as  it  does  through  his  boyhood,  felt  in  his  riper  years, 
operating  unseen  upon  the  principles  and  habits  of  all  after 
life,  running  into  eternity  —  so  there  can  be  no  estimating 
in  mere  dollars  and  cents  the  unspeakable  value  of  a  good 
teacher's  services.  No  pecuniary  emolument  can  ever  can- 
cel the  obligation,  unf  elt  and  unacknowledged  though  it  may 
be,  under  which  the  parent  comes  to  the  teacher. 

The  parent  witnesses  the  expansion  of  the  bud,  the  beau- 
tifying of  the  flower ;  but  the  genial  influences  which  oper- 
ate on  these  as  the  gentle  dew  and  the  blessed  sunshine  of 
heaven  are  wholly  forgotten  and  overlooked.  A  hand  is  at 
work  behind  the  scenes,  and  only  the  light  of  eternity  can 


DUTIES   OF  PARENTS  27 

reveal  to  the  astonished  parent  that  the  sun,  the  shade,  the 
imperceptible  dew  on  the  mind  of  his  child  were  to  be  found 
in  the  unobtrusive  workings  —  the  judicious,  persevering, 
faithful  training  —  of  the  neglected  teacher. 

There  is  something  cheering  and  animating  in  the  cordial- 
ity of  soul  which  it  is  in  the  parents'  power  to  exercise 
toward  the  instructor.  If  they  have  not  time  for  the  visita- 
tion of  the  school  or  qualifications  for  the  examination  of 
their  children  in  their  studies,  they  certainly  have  it  in 
their  power  to  do  much  to  make  the  teacher's  life  a  pleas- 
anter  one.  They  can  give  to  him  some  tokens  of  a  kindly 
interest  in  his  success,  and  of  a  willingness  to  cheer  him 
along  his  toilsome  way.  Permit  the  teacher  to  see  that  his 
labors  are  appreciated,  his  duties  and  difficulties  properly 
estimated,  his  plans  cordially  acquiesced  in  and  promoted, 
his  acts  candidly  judged,  his  faults  fairly  considered  and 
heartily  overlooked,  and  he  would  be  ungrateful  indeed 
should  he  not  be  willing  to  devote  his  strength  to  the  last 
remnant  of  energy,  to  requite  the  confidence  and  answer 
the  just  expectations  of  those  for  whom  he  labors. 

COMMENT  ox  PAGE'S  SPEECH. 

These  are  strong  words,  and,  considering  the  fact  that 
they  were  written  by  Mr.  Page  over  fifty  years  ago,  and 
that  never  before  had  the  attention  of  parents  been  called 
publicly  to  their  shortcomings,  or  an  attempt  made  to 
awaken  in  them  a  sense  of  their  responsibilities,  they  are 
bold  ones. 

Their  effect  has  been  widespread.  Parents  have  been 
quick  to  respond,  and  better  schools,  with  higher  general 
culture,  have  been  the  results  of  the  part  taken  by  parents 
in  the  development  of  educational  systems.  In  place  of  the 
school  with  — 

"  The  warping  floor,  the  battered  seats, 
The  jackknife's  carved  initial," 

and 

"  The  charcoal  frescoes  on  the  wall," 


28  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

we  have  the  beautiful  modern  building,  with  its  fine  equip- 
ment, its  handsomely  furnished  recitation  rooms,  its  piano, 
its  pictures,  and  its  carefully  kept  grounds.  These  have 
come  because  the  people  have  recognized  how  much  they 
owe  to  the  school,  and  how  much  influence  these  externals 
have  on  character. 

Nor  is  it  only  in  the  matter  of  externals  that  the  influence 
of  the  people  is  felt.  The  man  may  still  be  found  who 
protests  against  his  boy's  being  taught  anything  but  read- 
ing, writing,  and  arithmetic ;  but  he  is  hard  to  find.  The 
school  curriculum,  though  far  from  perfect,  is  now  left  by 
the  people  in  charge  of  the  educational  expert.  Things  are 
coming  into  the  course  of  study  that  will  give  a  "  nudge " 
towards  "more  life,"  and  those  things  which  do  not  are 
being  dropped. 

More  than  this,  the  people  are  demanding  that  the  men 
and  women  who  assume  the  great  responsibility  of  leading 
the  little  ones  into  "  more  life  "  shall  be  fitted  for  the  great 
trust  by  thorough  training  under  experts  at  our  universities 
and  normal  schools. 

Much  of  this  steady  advance  is  the  natural  advance  of 
civilization,  of  course,  but  we  owe  much  to  Mr.  Page  and 
his  colaborers  for  seeing  to  it  that  the  school  kept  up  with 
the  rest  of  our  institutions  in  this  steady  march.  The 
change  in  the  attitude  of  the  people  towards  the  school 
renders  appropriate  the  mention  of  some  things  not  men- 
tioned in  Mr.  Page's  address,  and  I  shall  put  down  some 
statements  here  which  teachers  have  often  talked  over,  and 
which  may  have  some  good  effect,  I  hope,  in  causing  parents 
to  view  them  as  teachers  do. 

Inadequate  Compensation  of  Teachers.  —  First,  then,  par- 
ents should  lend  their  influence  in  favor  of  adequate 
compensation.  The  pay  of  teachers  always  has  been  inade- 
quate. The  majority  of  teachers  work  a  part  of  the  year 
at  a  wage  which,  measured  by  the  needs  of  the  entire  year, 
is  pitifully  meager. 


DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  29 

Every  year  hundreds  of  young  men  are  forced  out  of  the 
ranks  of  teachers  in  simple  self-defense.  Most  of  them  take 
up  teaching  because  they  feel  that  it  is  the  work  to  which 
they  wish  to  bring  the  fire  of  their  new  zeal.  Their  enthu- 
siasm is  dampened  when  they  discover  that  their  earnings 
will  not  permit  their  taking  the  necessary  steps  to  make 
desired  advancement  in  their  chosen  profession. 

It  is  true  that  there  has  been  an  advance  in  the  matter 
of  compensation  within  recent  years;  but  it  has  not  ex- 
tended to  the  great  body  of  the  rank  and  file,  and  in  few 
cases  has  it  reached  anything  like  the  amounts  secured  by 
less  labor  and  the  exercise  of  less  skill  in  other  profes- 
sions. 

The  agitation  of  the  matter  of  compensation  has  had  one 
result  in  a  proposition  for  pensioning  superannuated  teachers. 
It  has  met  with  strong  opposition  from  the  teachers.  All 
the  educational  journals  and  many  prominent  educators 
have  protested  warmly  against  pensions,  and  have  declared 
that  it  will  be  better  to  give  the  teacher  more  pay.  This 
will  enable  him  to  lay  by  something  for  the  "  rainy  day." 
It  will  be  infinitely  better  to  pay  him  as  much  as  his  ser- 
vice demands  than  to  pay  him  inadequately  and  then  attempt 
to  comfort  his  declining  years  with  a  meager  pittance.  It 
is  believed  that  a  pension  system  would  cause  a  general 
depression  in  "  tone,"  and  would  operate  disastrously  against 
the  growth  of  professional  spirit. 

It  is  constantly  said  that  the  reason  teachers  are  poorly 
paid  lies  in  themselves.  Teachers  must  make  themselves 
worthy  of  greater  compensation,  and  then  they  will  obtain  it. 
This  is  good  logic,  and  it  has  been  listened  to,  as  our  uni- 
versities and  normal  schools  bear  witness.  Their  halls  are 
crowded  with  young  people  who  are  fitting  themselves  for 
the  great  work  of  teaching  by  securing  a  higher  education, 
by  the  study  of  pedagogic  principles,  by  an  inquiry  into  the 
laws  of  the  mind's  operations,  by  acquainting  themselves 
with  the  history  of  education.  They  recognize  the  fact 


30  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

that,  if  they  would  raise  their  work  to  the  dignity  of  a 
"  calling/7  they  must  know  more  than  the  mere  facts  of  the 
studies  of  the  curriculum. 

Good  primary  teachers  in  the  graded  school,  for  instance, 
know  that  all  the  studies  of  the  high  school  and  the  uni- 
versity are  bound  up  in  their  work.  They  should  be  well 
and  thoroughly  educated,  in  order  that  they  may  clearly  see 
"  the  end  from  the  beginning.77  They  must  know  far  more. 
They  must  know  the  nature  of  the  operations  of  the  delicate 
and  tender  minds  which  form  their  material  for  work,  and 
carefully  avoid  giving  wrong  habits  of  thought  and  fatal  and 
erroneous  impressions.  What  a  responsibility  rests  upon 
the  primary  teachers ! 

What  has  been  said  of  the  training  of  primary  teachers 
applies  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  teachers  of  every 
grade  —  to  the  specialists  in  the  high  school,  and  to  the 
professors  of  the  university.  Teachers  of  all  grades  have 
felt  the  need  of  this  training,  and  the  standard  of  efficiency 
grows  higher  every  year. 

But  now  that  the  demand  of  teachers  for  better  pay  has 
been  met  with  compliance,  there  seems  to  be  no  desire  on 
the  part  of  the  public  to  advance  salaries  to  the  amounts 
deserved.  There  is  an  impression  abroad  that  a  salary  of 
from  f  600.00  to  $  1200.00  is  a  comfortable  income  and  an 
adequate  compensation  when  given  to  the  representative  and 
professional  teacher.  It  is  forgotten  that  the  lawyer  or 
physician  or  other  professional  man  who  has  spent  as  many 
years  in  preparation  and  in  work  is  usually  paid  twice  as 
much  or  more. 

And  it  can  be  said  to-day  that  one  may  become  a  success- 
ful lawyer  or  physician,  viewed  from  the  financial  stand- 
point, with  much  less  of  special  preparation  than  is  required 
of  the  young  man  or  young  woman  who  desires  to  enter  the 
teacher's  profession. 

It  is  stated  that  back  of  the  fee  of  the  specialist  is  his 
"  knowing  how.'7  Is  not  the  work  of  the  teacher  that  of  the 


DUTIES   OF  PARENTS  31 

expert,  too  ?  Should  he  not  be  paid  for  the  years  of  special 
training  which  have  fitted  him  to  be  a  workman  on  that 
most  delicate  of  materials,  the  human  soul  ? 

But  the  public  still  refuse  to  regard  this  work  as  that  of 
a  specialist.  His  salary  is  still  fixed  at  figures  based  upon 
the  idea  that  the  teacher's  work  is  the  work  of  the  common 
artisan.  He  is  practically  paid  by  the  hour,  and  the  num- 
ber of  hours  considered  are  only  those  actually  occupied  in 
hearing  recitations  and  attending  to  the  various  duties  of  the 
schoolroom. 

Further,  we  do  not  believe  that  many  parents  realize  the 
strain  occasioned  by  teaching,  the  tax  upon  the  nervous  sys- 
tem which  the  daily  worries  of  the  schoolroom  bring.  The 
constant  endeavor  to  give  true  and  not  false  estimates  of 
things,  the  effort  to  break  habits  of  conduct  and  thought 
which  would  affect  the  future  happiness  of  the  children, 
and  to  impart  new  ones  which  will  be  the  source  of  the  joy 
and  the  peace  of  life  correctly  lived,  —  all  these  things  enter 
into  the  daily  working  life  of  the  true  teacher.  The  neces- 
sities of  the  teacher  are  those  of  the  man  in  professional 
life ;  while,  as  has  been  said,  he  is  paid,  for  the  most  part, 
as  a  common  laborer. 

The  mechanic's  simple  wants  are  usually  adequately  fur- 
nished by  the  wage  he  earns.  His  dress  should  be  plain. 
He  enjoys  simple  and  inexpensive  luxuries.  But  the  teacher, 
if  he  wishes  to  use  all  the  means  which  make  for  higher 
influences  on  children's  lives,  must  dress  so  that  his  attire 
will  not  attract  attention  by  its  cheapness  or  coarseness.  By 
this  it  is  not  meant  that  he  must  dress  expensively,  but  he 
must  attire  himself  with  the  simple  elegance  which  will  not 
call  the  attention  to  the  clothing,  but  will  conform  to  the 
professional  position  which  he  holds. 

Mention  has  been  already  made  of  the  necessity  of  thor- 
ough professional  training.  Scores  of  teachers  yearly  spend 
all  of  the  meager  savings  of  their  winter's  hard  work  in 
maintaining  themselves  in  the  summer  at  some  university 


32  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

or  normal  school.  This  drain  is  hardly  taken  into  consid- 
eration when  salaries  are  arranged. 

Further,  every  live  teacher  feels  the  need  of  the  contact 
with  his  fellow-workers,  for  which  opportunity  is  given  by 
the  various  educational  associations  of  his  town,  his  county, 
his  State,  and  by  the  national  meetings.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  he  receive  the  impetus  of  these  meetings 
with  others  engaged  in  the  same  high  work ;  that  he  hear 
the  results  of  others'  experience  and  research ;  that  he  secure 
the  uplift  into  clearer  atmospheres  of  thought  from  the  great 
leaders  of  the  profession  who  are  present.  This  is  another 
fact  that  should  be  held  in  mind  by  the  community  when 
the  matter  of  pay  is  under  discussion. 

Another  drain  upon  the  resources  of  the  teacher,  little 
taken  into  account,  is  that  occasioned  by  his  library.  The 
teacher  must  possess  the  best  and  freshest  books.  These 
must  be  books  on  professional  subjects  —  books  which  pur- 
sue into  their  higher  developments  the  lines  of  work  he  is 
engaged  in  teaching  —  and  books  of  general  literary  culture. 

The  teacher  must  know  his  subject.  More  than  this,  he 
must  know  how  to  present  it.  He  must  understand  as  well 
as  possible  the  operations  of  the  human  mind.  He  must 
be  acquainted  with  method,  and  profit  by  other  teachers' 
devices.  He  must  know  the  experiences  of  others  in  mat- 
ters of  school  management,  in  order  that  he  may  begin  his 
work,  not  at  the  same  level  at  which  the  masters  of  former 
generations  began,  but  as  nearly  as  possible  where  they  left 
off.  He  must  know  the  results  of  the  latest  child-study. 
His  success  as  a  teacher  will  depend  upon  how  well  he 
understands  child-mind  —  and  child-body,  too  !  Many  help- 
ful words  for  his  work  he  will  find  in  the  weekly  or  monthly 
educational  journal  for  which  he  subscribes.  There  he  finds 
the  fresh  results  of  the  schoolroom's  experiences,  not  yet 
crystallized  into  books,  and  educational  intelligence  of  much 
value. 

Equally  important  with  the  professional  side  of  his  read- 


DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  33 

ing  are  his  books  of  general  culture.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest 
missions  of  the  teacher  to  lead  the  child  into  the  habit  of 
reading.  He  must  realize  that,  in  the  company  of  the  great- 
est of  earth,  the  child  will  but  learn  how  to  find  himself. 
The  teacher  who  does  not  attempt  to  impart  the  magic 
"  Open,  Sesame  !  "  which  will  unlock  the  doors  of  the  King's 
Treasuries  is  unworthy  the  name.  The  only  way  to  do  this 
noble  thing  is  to  have  the  nobility  of  these  true  kings  of 
men  in  one's  own  heart.  As  far  as  possible,  the  teacher 
must  be  Shakspeare  and  Milton,  Euskin  and  Tennyson, 
Emerson  and  Carlyle,  Longfellow  and  Hawthorne.  Can  he 
dare  to  be  without  the  culture  of  this  great  acquaintance- 
ship? 

To  stimulate  among  teachers  better  and  deeper  habits  of 
reading,  and  to  give  to  the  individual  the  enthusiasm  which 
comes  when  a  mass  pursues  a  common  end,  Teachers'  Read- 
ing Circles  have  been  formed  in  many  States.  It  is  a  move- 
ment  which  has  been  productive  of  inestimable  benefit. 
The  aim  of  the  promoters  has  been  to  increase  the  profes- 
sional spirit  and  enthusiasm,  and  also,  where  .necessary,  a 
sense  of  need  of  the  culture  which  comes  from  the  love  of 
books.  So  there  is  usually  made  a  selection  of  two  books 
for  each  year's  work,  one  relating  to  pedagogics,  psychology, 
or  school  management,  and  the  other  either  a  masterpiece  or- 
a  collection  of  the  writings  of  various  authors  upon  a  single 
topic,  or  of  a  similar  character. 

The  number  engaged  in  this  work  is  increasing  every 
year.  Those  whose  pay  is  so  inadequate  that  they  can  do 
no  more,  aside  from  the  expense  of  their  special  training, 
than  to  subscribe  for  an  educational  journal,  are  enabled  to 
secure  at  low  rate  a  good  working  library. 

The  public  demands  trained  teachers ;  it  demands  (uncon- 
sciously, perhaps)  that  they  read  the  books  of  the  profession 
and  the  books  of  general  literature.  It  should  keep  in  mind 
the  needs  of  the  teachers'  libraries  when  it  fixes,  through  its 
public  servants,  the  amounts  of  their  salaries.  Parents  must 

SCH.   INT.  &  BUT. — 3 


34  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

remember  that  if  the  children  are  to  have  the  training  which 
is  to  bring  the  greatest  happiness,  the  teacher  must  be  paid 
a  sufficient  amount  to  enable  him  to  meet  the  expenditures 
necessary  to  put  him  in  line  with  the  best  of  his  profession, 
and  to  bring  him  at  least  some  of  the  comforts  of  life  enjoyed 
by  men  in  other  professions  who  have  given  equal  time  and 
thought  to  their  work. 

The  town  meeting  in  some  States  affords  the  patrons  of 
the  school  a  direct  voice  in  this  matter.  Their  votes  may 
wiejd  a  powerful  influence,  if  they  realize  the  truth  of  what 
has  been  said,  to  bring  about  a  better  condition  of  affairs. 

But  where  the  matter  is  in  the  hands  of  school  boards 
or  committees  or  trustees,  as  they  may  be  variously  called, 
they  may  still  do  a  great  good  by  creating  a  sentiment  in 
the  teachers'  behalf,  which  will  influence  the  board  to  act 
wisely ;  or  they  can  express  strong  disapproval  of  measures 
which  will  reduce  his  income.  The  board  represents  the 
sentiment  of  the  community ;  and  if  the  community  is  inter- 
ested in  the  schools,  competent  teachers  will  be  employed 
at  adequate  salaries. 

Need  of  Proper  Environment.  —  Parents  should  exert  their 
influence  in  favor  of  pleasant  surroundings  for  the  school. 
Environment  is  a  sorely  abused  word.  But  it  expresses 
best  the  things  which  make  for  character  by  their  silent 
influence.  Most  of  the  impressions  which  mold  lives  come 
from  the  little-thought-of,  silent  things  which  we  meet  from 
day  to  day. 

Children  reared  in  beautiful  homes  —  beautiful  because  of 
their  tidiness  and  cleanliness  and  the  exercise  of  taste,  rather 
than  mere  costliness  —  can  little  measure  the  influence  of 
the  lovely  spirit  of  home  in  their  lives,  their  desires  and 
thoughts.  From  the  beautiful  atmosphere  of  home  come 
the  noblest  and  tenderest  traits  of  noble  and  tender  men, 
the  sweetest  and  loveliest  characteristics  of  sweet  and  lovely 
women.  But  the  home  rooftree  shares  with  the  school  the 
immense  responsibility  of  the  early  impressions.  The  child 


DUTIES   OF  PARENTS  35 

spends  many  hours  of  the  most  impressionable  period  of  his 
life  in  the  schoolroom  and  on  its  grounds.  His  waking 
moments  are  about  equally  divided  between  the  home  and 
the  school. 

Are  not,  then,  the  surroundings  of  the  school  almost  as 
important  as  those  of  the  home  itself  ?  Is  it  not  possible 
that  the  effect  of  the  beautiful  home  spirit  may  be  effectu- 
ally destroyed  by  an  ill-kept,  squalid  school  ?  Do  not  pupils 
who  are  obliged  to  spend  hours  each  day  in  a  room,  the 
walls  of  which  are  blackened  and  defaced,  or  decorated  with 
festoons  of  dusty  cobwebs  and  with  equally  dusty  charts  or 
dirty  blackboards,  the  desks  scratched  and  defaced  by  the 
"  jackknife's  carved  initial,"  the  floor  dusty  and  littered, 
this  affording  opportunity  for  the  dissemination  of  disease 
germs  —  do  not  pupils  who  are  subjected  to  these  conditions 
take  on  the  frowsy  character  of  the  place  ?  One  finds  them 
lounging  in  listless  attitudes  in  their  seats,  with  soiled 
clothing  and  begrimed  knuckles.  And  too  often  is  it  true 
that  these  are  but  indications  of  a  worse  and  deeper  condi- 
tion, which  is  rapidly  becoming  a  permanent  state  of  soul. 
Character  is  being  hurt ;  souls  are  receiving  fatal  wounds. 

Of  course,  a  great  many  things  about  such  a  school  may 
and  should  be  corrected  by  the  teacher.  He  can  have  the 
dirty  walls  whitewashed,  the  floors  scrubbed  and  the  rubbish 
of  the  playground  raked  into  a  heap  and  burned.  He  can 
buy  pictures  at  a  reasonable  cost,  and  in  different  ways  may 
change  the  atmosphere  of  the  place. 

The  greater  responsibility,  however,  rests  with  the  par- 
ents. They  must  see  that  the  building  is  comfortable  and 
conveniently  arranged,  sanitary  and  pleasing  architecturally. 
They  must  see  to  it  that  the  site  chosen  has  something  to 
commend  it  other  than  that  it  is  unfit  for  any  other  purpose. 
It  should  have  a  beautiful  lawn  and  stately  trees.  The 
building,  in  its  architecture  and  materials  of  construction, 
should  compare  favorably  with  the  best  residences  and  pub- 
lic edifices  of  the  community. 


36  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  taxpayers  will  fill  them 
with  marbles  of  Carrara  or  with  specimens  of  Titians  and 
Van  Dycks ;  yet  they  should  bear  in  mind  that  they  are  pro- 
viding a  home  for  their  children,  where  they  will  receive 
impressions  which  will  be  a  part  of  their  lives,  made  plain 
in  word,  action,  and  manner.  Nay,  impressions  which  will 
have  their  imprint  on  character,  which  will  last  longer  than 
earthly  life,  will  be  received  there. 

In  another  place,  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  school 
will  be  discussed  further.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that 
parents  must  ever  keep  in  mind  their  responsibility  in  this 
direction  and  cooperate  with  teachers  and  school  officers  to 
make  the  schoolhouse  a  place  where  health  shall  be  con- 
served, and  where  only  good  impressions  shall  be  received. 

Public  Encouragement  of  School  Celebrations.  —  Parents 
should  endeavor  to  create  a  public  spirit  in  connection  with 
school  celebrations.  Exercises  in  which  children  take  a 
prominent  part  are  always  interesting.  We  crowd  the 
churches  whenever  the  children  of  the  church  take  charge 
of  the  exercises.  We  love  to  hear  the  little  tots,  in  long 
white  dresses,  and  with  flowers  in  their  dimpled  fists,  speak 
their  pieces  or  sing  their  quavering  solos. 

It  would  be  well  if  we  also  had  the  same  interest  and 
enthusiasm  in  the  exercises  of  the  school.  It  would  be  well 
if  the  children  were  made  to  feel  that  what  they  do  in  the 
way  of  celebrating  the  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  the 
Father  of  our  Country,  or  in  commemoration  of  one  of  our 
great  bards,  or  in  the  simple  exercises  attending  that  noble 
act,  the  planting  of  a  tree,  is  of  enough  interest  to  attract 
from  their  vocations  the  elders  of  the  community.  What 
an  inspiration  it  is  to  the  teacher  and  school  to  have  the 
patrons  leave  their  business  and  spend  an  afternoon  at  the 
school !  Nor  are  the  exercises  uninteresting  or  unimportant. 
If  the  parents  would  show  their  interest  and  lend  the  sanc- 
tion of  their  presence,  many  good  lessons  would  be  doubly 
efficacious. 


DUTIES   OF  PARENTS  37 

Nor  are  the  children  the  only  ones  benefited.  For  a  case 
in  point,  let  Arbor  Day  be  cited,  it  being  an  occasion  for 
public  exercises  on  the  campus.  Who  can  say  that  the 
planting  of  a  tree  is  an  event  interesting  to  a  child  only  ? 
Every  thoughtful  man  and  woman  sees  in  such  a  deed  a 
deep  significance.  He  who  plants  a  tree  is  a  friend  of 
mankind. 

"  He  who  plants  a  tree, 

He  plants  love ; 

Tents  of  coolness  spreading  out  above 
Wayfarers  he  may  not  live  to  see. 
Gifts  that  grow  are  best ; 
Hands  that  bless  are  blest ; 
Plant :  life  does  the  rest. 
Heaven  and  earth  help  him  who  plants  a  tree, 
And  his  work  its  own  reward  shall  be." 

The  presence  of  the  citizens  on  such  an  occasion  is  of 
inestimable  value.  Ought  they  not  to  open  their  eyes  to 
the  good  they  may  do  by  making  impressions  which  will 
bear  fruit  in  nobility  of  character  ?  More  than  their  presence 
is  demanded  of  them.  All  the  exercises  incidental  to  the 
planting  of  the  tree  should  not  be  left  to  the  children,  nor 
to  the  teacher  or  the  trustees.  This  is  a  place  for  addresses 
by  fathers  and  mothers,  as  well  as  songs  and  recitations  by 
the  children.  Every  Arbor  Day  programme  should  have  a 
place  for  one  or  more  than  one  of  the  leading  citizens  of  the 
community  who  are  not  members  of  the  board. 

The  great  opportunity  of  Arbor  Day  is  the  making  for 
things  high  and  noble  and  good  in  character.  But  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  the  gathering  of  the  fathers  and  mothers  on  the 
school  premises  will  afford  opportunities  for  them  to  learn 
for  themselves  important  facts  concerning  their  school.  The 
parents,  on  such  occasions,  will  become  better  advised  as  to 
the  site  of  the  school.  They  will  assure  themselves  that  it 
is  well-kept,  well-drained,  and  healthful.  They  will  see  that 
the  surrounding  buildings  are  clean  and  are  so  kept  that 


38  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

they  do  not  impair  health.  They  will  investigate  the  water 
supply  and  see  that  the  well  is  so  situated  that  the  water 
is  not  contaminated  by  cesspools,  privies,  and  cemeteries. 
They  will,  or  should,  look  to  the  lighting  and  ventilation  of 
the  schoolrooms.  All  these  things  and  others  should  be 
matters  of  special  investigation.  If  the  fathers  and  mothers 
care  for  the  life  and  health,  they  must  see  to  it  that  the 
school  surroundings  are  conducive  to  both. 

It  is  well  to  know  if  the  schoolroom  is  neat.  Is  the  floor 
dusty  and  bestrewn  with  scraps  of  paper  ?  Are  books  and 
papers  in  order  ?  Are  the  dictionaries  open  on  the  stands  ? 
Are  the  globes  permitted  to  be  fingered?  Are  desks  and 
walls  defaced?  Parents  will  find  this  a  most  excellent 
opportunity  for  quiet  observation  of  the  school's  condition. 

There  is  to  be  mentioned  another  of  the  many  benefits 
accruing  to  parents  from  the  meeting  on  such  occasions  as 
those  of  Arbor  Day.  The  assembly  of  the  people  is  an 
important  factor  in  the  social  life  of  the  community.  It  is 
an  occasion  for  the  renewal  of  old  acquaintanceship,  and  the 
formation  of  new  attachments ;  an  opportunity  for  the  hearty 
hand-clasp  and  the  cordial  word  of  cheer.  The  eye  kindles 
with  the  spirit  of  good-fellowship,  the  heart  glows  with  the 
kindly  feelings  aroused  by  the  renewal  of  old  ties. 

Such  occasions  are  necessary  to  the  social  life  of  every 
community.  The  event,  like  mercy,  is  twice  blessed  j  it  is 
an  uplift  to  the  community  at  large;  it  is  of  incalculable 
value  to  the  children  and  the  teacher  of  the  school. 

Upon  every  Arbor  Day  there  should  be,  besides  the 
speech-making  by  the  citizens,  appropriate  literary  exercises 
by  the  school.  The  trees  planted  should  be  named.  Here, 
in  this  corner  of  the  ground,  is  the  Washington  elm ;  yonder 
stands  the  Longfellow  oak ;  there,  the  Bryant  maple.  What 
beautiful  impress  can  be  made  upon  the  hearts  of  the  chil- 
dren by  the  serious  dedication  of  noble  trees  to  the  memory 
of  our  great  and  noble  souls,  with  whose  spirits  trees  seem 
to  have  such  a  sacred  and  mysterious  sympathy ! 


DUTIES   OF  PARENTS  39 

The  writer  well  remembers  the  indescribable  swelling  of 
heart  which  he  experienced  when,  as  a  boy,  he  superin- 
tended the  careful  setting  of  the  Longfellow  elm  on  the 
beautiful  school  campus,  amid  the  solemn  hush  induced  by 
the  pervading  spirit  of  the  occasion.  Heads  were  bared  as 
the  school  and  its  visitors  stood  about  until,  when  the  cere- 
mony was  completed,  we  sang,  all  joining,  the  Psalm  of  Life. 
Childish  it  may  seem  to  some ;  but  one,  at  least,  from  the 
memory  of  that  occasion  alone  believes  that  such  an  event 

"  May  teach  you  more  of  man, 
Of  moral  evil  and  of  good, 
Than  all  the  sages  can." 

If  the  parents  will  gather  at  the  tree-planting,  letting  the 
children  see  that  they  see  in  it  the  beauty  of  associating 
noble  lives  with  noble  trees,  learning  lessons  of  patriotism 
and  duty  themselves,  and  that  they  recognize  the  "  more  " 
there  is  in  it  than  the  utilitarian  result  —  high  and  noble  as 
that  is  in  itself  —  there  will  be  a  benefit  to  that  community 
which  will  not  end  with  that  sun's  going  down,  nor  with  the 
school  year's  end,  but  which  will  extend  its  influence  in 
widening  circles  through  the  years. 

Besides  the  exercises  attendant  upon  tree-planting,  many 
similar  occasions  are  as  productive  of  good  results,  if  sanc- 
tioned by  the  presence  of  the  school  patrons.  Such  are  the 
celebration  of  authors'  birthdays,  flag-raisings,  State  days, 
celebrations  peculiar  to  localities,  and  so  forth. 

What  beautiful,  ennobling  influences  come  from  setting 
apart  a  day  for  the  commemoration  of  some  one  of  our 
national  bards !  How  respect  and  love  for  the  flag  are 
stimulated  by  making  it  the  subject  of  serious  and  beautiful 
ceremonials !  How  pride  for  our  State  and  love  for  the 
great  Union  are  fostered  by  the  patriotic,  soul-stirring 
speeches  and  music  of  State  and  National  holidays ! 

Supervision  of  the  Child's  General  Reading.  —  Parents 
should  know  the  kind  of  books  their  children  are  reading. 


40  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Eeference  has  been  made  already  to  the  teacher's  need  of 
acquaintance  with  books.  One  of  the  greatest  blessings  that 
cart  come  to  the  child  is  the  habit  of  reading  good  books. 
Nothing  can  make  for  culture  and  character  like  this.  Noth- 
ing can  be  more  harmful  to  the  plastic  nature  of  children 
than  bad  books.  "I  conceive,"  says  Mr.  Carlyle,  "that 
books  are  like  men's  souls  —  divided  into  sheep  and  goats." 

Parents  must  know  how  necessary  a  thing  it  is  that  the 
children  read  only  good  books;  how  important  it  is  that 
they  early  make  the  friendship  of  those  great  and  simple 
men  who  have  put  down  carefully  and  in  an  interesting 
manner  their  thoughts  on  life,  its  mysteries,  its  short- 
comings, and  its  glorious  possibilities.  These  are  sometimes 
told  in  an  allegorical  way,  like  the  story  of  The  Great  Stone 
Face;  sometimes  these  thoughts  are  crystallized  into  a 
beautiful  poem,  sometimes  wrought  out  in  a  fascinating 
novel. 

Parents  must  see  to  it  that  the  boys  and  girls  learn  to 
love  to  read  of  a  beautiful  life.  How  many  men  and  women 
there  are  whose  lives  have  been  lovely,  whose  actions  have 
been  inspired  by  the  thrill  of  great  convictions,  and  who 
have  been  actuated  by  lofty  philanthropic  or  patriotic  mo- 
tives !  How  many  there  are  whose  biographies  have  been 
preserved  to  be  beacon  lights  for  succeeding  generations ! 

The  children  must  be  led  in  some  way  to  approach  with 
love  the  great  kind  souls  who  will  speak  to  them  so  tenderly 
and  strongly  out  of  the  pages  of  books.  In  this  way  more 
than  in  any  other,  I  believe,  will  the  children  be  brought  to 
realize  themselves  and  their  possibilities.  What  end  of  edu- 
cation is  more  important  than  this  ?  Making  the  true,  the 
beautiful,  and  the  good  of  literature  a  part  of  the  lives  of 
the  children  is  true  education,  is  it  not  ? 

Our  schoolmen  have  felt  these  things  for  a  long  time,  and 
to-day  we  are  beginning  to  realize  some  results  of  their 
endeavors.  One  of  the  best  results  is  the  Pupils'  Eeading 
Circles,  which  have  been  organized  in  many  States.  A 


DUTIES  OF  PARENTS  41 

number  of  men  and  women  in  each  of  these  States,  organ- 
ized as  a  board  of  directors,  have  selected  from  the  wealth 
of  juvenile  literature  a  number  of  books,  each  year.  These 
are  books  of  good  reading,  chosen  as  suitable  for  the  various 
grades  of  the  primary  and  grammar  school  departments,  and 
sometimes  also  for  the  high  school  grades.  These  are  of- 
fered always  at  low  rates,  and  the  result  is  that  thousands 
of  children  are  reading  good,  clean,  and  wholesome  literature. 

The  establishment  of  these  Circles  is  having  its  effect  on 
the  fiber  of  their  character;  and  the  coming  rulers  of  the 
nation  are  certain  to  prove  its  good  effects.  The  whole 
Nation  will  be  greatly  benefited  by  this  movement  for  good 
reading.  Every  year  finds  many  thousands  newly  enrolled 
as  members  of  these  Pupils'  Eeading  Circles. 

The  father  has  here  a  good  opportunity  for  helpfulness. 
If  he  will  spend  the  small  sum  necessary  for  the  purchase 
of  the  books,  and  enjoy  them  with  his  boys  and  girls  about 
the  winter  evening's  blazing  hearth,  he  will  find,  perhaps, 
much  in  them  that  will  meet  his  needs  as  well  as  the  chil- 
dren's. Wise  men  bestow  their  benediction  upon  him  and 
them,  and  he  will  find,  as  they  will,  that  "  his  heart  is  get- 
ting softer,  his  blood  warmer,  his  brain  quicker,  and  his 
spirit  entering  into  Living  Peace."  Helping  the  children  is 
just  another  way  of  helping  ourselves. 

Many  States  have  as  yet  no  organization  of  this, kind. 
Where  such  is  the  case,  we  hope  the  day  will  speedily  come 
when  there  will  be  such  an  organization.  In  some  States, 
however,  public  money  is  provided  for  school  library  pur- 
poses. This  should  be  always  utilized  and  expended  with 
the  greatest  care.  The  selection  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
the  teacher  and  a  committee  of  patrons  chosen  on  account 
of  their  fitness  for  the  place.  The  member  of  the  committee 
who  "  goes  in  for  solid  reading "  should  not  be  allowed  to 
dictate  the  entire  selection.  His  goodly  share  should  be 
allowed.  Neither  must  the  member  who  argues  for  "light 
reading  "  be  permitted  to  have  everything  his  way. 


42  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Above  all,  let  the  sort  of  book  which  is  easily  recognized 
by  its  mawkish  sentimentalism  and  its  vicious  style,  and 
which  has  found  its  way  into  so  many  libraries,  be  shunned 
as  mental  poison.  The  books  of  lighter  nature  should  have 
characters  who  are  real  men  and  women,  real  boys  and  girls, 
with  the  true  manly  and  womanly  traits  and  the  real  evil 
tendencies  of  life.  In  another  chapter  will  be  found  further 
suggestions  relative  to  books  suitable  for  school  libraries. 

Where  there  is  no  public  money,  the  cooperation  of  teacher 
and  parent  should  be  exercised  to  provide  funds  by  private 
enterprise  and  entertainments.  In  this  way  many  schools 
have  provided  themselves  with  good  working  libraries,  and 
with  books  of  general  culture. 

Let  the  people  see  that  their  schoolhouse  is  supplied  with 
a  well-filled  bookcase,  and  then  let  them  see  to  it  that  their 
teachers  are  qualified  to  whisper  to  the  little  eager  ears  the 
magic  word  which  will  unlock  this  wonderful  treasure-house 
of  books. 


II 

DUTIES   OF   TEACHERS 
DUTIES   OF   SCHOOL   OFFICERS 


CHAPTER   II 
1)1  TIES  OF   TEACHERS 

High  Ideals. — The  teacher  should  imbue  himself  with 
JL  feeling  ,,i  tin-  importance  of  his  work.  If  he  would  gain 
tin-  confidence  of  his  employers,  he  must  be  prepared  to 
show  them  evidence  of  a  living  interest  in  his  profession. 
Bui,  this  cannot  be  shown  unless  it  is  deeply  felt.  In 
contemplating  his  duty,  the  teacher  should  form  elevated 
conceptions  of  his  sphere  of  action,  and  he  should  aim  at 
nothing  less  than  such  an  ascendency  over  the  minds  of 
his  i ii 1 1 ills  as  will  enable  him  fitly  to  govern,  to  instruct, 
and  to  elevnie  1  hem  as  moral  beings. 

Intercourse  with  Parents.  —  He  should  seek  frequent  oppor- 
tunity for  i  utercourse  with  the  parents.  Though  the  advances 
towards  this  point,  by  the  strict  rules  of  etiquette,  should 
be  made,  it  would  seem,  by  the  parents  themselves,  yet, 
as  a  general  thing,  taking  the  world  as  we  find  it,  tin- 
teacher  must  take  the  lead.  He  must  often  introduce  him- 
self uninvited  to  the  people  among  whom  he  dwells,  calling 
;ii  iheii-  homes  in  the  spirit  of  his  vocation,  and  conversing 
with  them  freely  about  his  duty  to  their  children  and  to 
themselves. 

p:ircnt,  of  course,  will  feel  bound  to  exercise  cour- 
teous civility  in  his  own  house.  ;md  by  MM  interview  perhaps 
:i  difference  of  opinion,  a  prejudice,  or  a  suspicion  may  be 
removed,  ;md  the  foundation  of  mutual  good  understanding 
ami  cordiality  may  be  laid.  It  may  be  very  useful  to  have 
an  interview  with  such  parents  as  have  been  disturbed  by 

45 


46  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

some  administration  of  discipline  upon  members  of  their 
families. 

Let  us  not  be  understood,  however,  to  recommend  that  the 
teacher  should  ever  go  to  the  parent  in  a  cringing,  unmanly 
spirit.  It  would  probably  be  far  better  that  the  parties 
should  ever  remain  entire  strangers  than  that  their  meeting 
should  be  an  occasion  of  humiliating  retraction  on  the  side 
of  the  teacher.  Neither  should  parents  ever  be  allowed  to 
expect  that  the  teacher  always  will  come,  as  a  matter  of 
duty,  to  their  confessional.  This  is  not  our  meaning.  But 
the  meeting  of  the  parties  as  men,  as  gentlemen,  as  Chris- 
tians, as  coadjutors,  for  the  child's  welfare,  will  always  be 
attended  with  good  results. 

The  teacher  should  be  willing  to  explain  all  his  plans  to 
the  parents  of  his  pupils.  If  they  had  implicit  confidence  in 
him  and  would  readily  and  fully  give  him  all  the  facilities 
for  carrying  forward  his  designs  without  explanation,  then 
perhaps  this  direction  might  not  be  necessary.  But  as  the 
world  is,  he  cannot  expect  spontaneous  confidence.  They 
wish  to  know  his  designs,  and  it  is  best  they  should  be 
informed.  The  readiest  way  for  the  teacher  to  interest 
them  in  the  business  of  education  will  be  to  converse  with 
them  freely  concerning  the  measures  he  intends  to  adopt. 
If  his  plans  be  judicious,  he,  of  course,  can  show  good  reasons 
why  they  should  be  carried  into  effect. 

Parents  are  usually  ready  to  listen  to  reason,  when  it  is 
directed  to  the  benefit  of  their  children.  Many  a  parent 
who,  upon  the  first  announcement  of  a  measure  in  school, 
has  stoutly  opposed  it  would  entertain  a  very  different  opin- 
ion after  a  little  conversation  with  the  teacher,  and  ever 
after  would  be  most  ready  to  countenance  and  to  support  it. 

It  seems  to  us  that  a  teacher  may  safely  encourage  inquiry 
into  all  his  movements  in  school.  There  is  an  old  saying  (in 
our  opinion  a  mischievous  one)  which  enjoins  it  as  a  duty 
upon  all  to  "  tell  no  tales  out  of  school."  We  see  no  objec- 
tion to  the  reverse  of  this.  Why  may  not  everything  be 


DUTIES  OF  TEACHERS  47 

told,  if  told  correctly  ?  Would  it  not  do  away  with  very 
much  of  the  existing  suspicion  already  spoken  of,  if  it  were 
understood  that  there  is  no  mystery  about  the  school  ?  Let 
this  be  the  case,  and  the  teacher  will  be  careful  never  to  do 
anything  or  to  say  anything  which  he  would  not  be  willing 
to  have  related  to  the  parents,  or  even  to  be  witnessed  by 
them.  We  would  that  the  walls  of  our  schoolrooms  were 
transparent  as  you  look  inward,  so  that  any  individual  unper- 
ceived  might  view  with  his  own  eyes  the  movements  within. 
We  believe  that  there  has  always  been  too  much  mystery 
within  our  schoolrooms,  and  the  sooner  we  have  daylight 
through  them  the  better. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  proper  to  suggest  that  the 
teacher  should  encourage  the  frequent  visitation  of  his  school 
by  the  parents  of  his  pupils.  When  this  takes  place,  let 
him  be  exceedingly  careful  that  he  does  not  in  any  instance 
deviate  from  his  accustomed  usage  on  their  account. 

Truth  and  Frankness.  —  The  teacher  should  be  frank  in 
all  his  representations  to  parents,  concerning  their  children. 
This  is  a  point  upon  which  many  teachers  most  lamentably 
err.  In  this,  as  in  every  other  case,  "  honesty  is  the  best 
policy."  If  an  instructor  informs  a  parent,  during  the  term, 
that  his  son  is  making  rapid  progress,  or,  as  the  phrase  is, 
"  doing  very  well,"  he  excites  in  him  high  expectations ;  and 
if,  at  the  end  of  the  term,  it  turns  out  otherwise,  the  parent, 
with  much  justice,  may  be  expected  to  load  him  with  censure 
instead  of  praise. 

Let  a  particular  answer,  and  a  true  one,  always  be  given 
to  the  inquiry,  "  How  does  my  son  get  along  ?  "  The  parent 
has  a  right  to  know,  and  the  teacher  has  no  right  to  disguise 
any  of  the  facts.  Sometimes  teachers  of  private  schools 
fear  the  loss  of  a  pupil,  and  therefore  use  some  indefinite 
expression,  which,  however,  the  doting  parent  is  usually 
ready  to  interpret  to  his  child's  advantage.  But  sooner  or 
later  the  truth  will  appear ;  and  when  the  teacher  is  once 
convicted  of  misrepresentation  in  this  particular,  there  is 


48  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

rarely  any  forgiveness  for  him.  For  this  reason,  and  for 
his  own  love  of  truth,  for  his  own  reputation,  and  for  the 
child's  welfare,  he  should  keep  nothing  back.  Tell  the 
whole  story  plainly  and  frankly,  and  the  father,  if  he  be  a 
gentleman,  will  thank  you  for  your  faithfulness  to  him ;  and 
if  he  have  any  sense  of  justice,  he  will  be  ready  to  cooperate 
with  you  for  his  child's  improvement. 

The  main  duties  which  the  teacher  directly  owes  to  the 
parent  we  think  we  have  now  noticed.  He  should  study 
faithfully  and  feelingly  the  relations  he  sustains  to  his 
pupils  and  their  parents ;  he  should  carefully  perform  every 
known  duty  in  its  time  and  its  manner,  according  to  the 
dictates  of  his  own  conscience.  Let  him  do  this,  and  he 
will  be  happy.  Yet  when  he  has  done  all  he  can  do,  the 
question  of  his  success  will  depend  very  much  upon  the 
parents  of  his  pupils.  They  must  come  forward  and  crown 
the  work,  or  very  much  will,  after  all,  be  wanting. 

COMMENT  ON  PAGE'S  SPEECH 

It  will  be  understood  that  Mr.  Page,  in  his  address,  has 
pointed  out  only  the  relative  duties  of  the  teacher.  He  has 
before  him  all  the  time  the  idea  of  cooperation,  and  there- 
fore it  is  only  the  mutual  duties  of  each  class  that  are  de- 
nned. A  discussion  of  the  teacher's  absolute  duties  would, 
of  course,  open  up  the  whole  subject  of  pedagogics.  In 
addition  to  what  Mr.  Page  has  said  so  admirably,  a  few 
supplementary  remarks  are  here  appended. 

Tact.  —  In  maintaining  satisfactory  relations  with  the  par- 
ents of  the  community,  the  teacher1  will  find  much  need 
of  tact.  Especially  will  this  be  the  case  in  many  communi- 


1  The  word  teacher  is  here  intended  to  include  the  principal  of  a  graded 
school,  who  is  really  the  principal  teacher.  The  superintendent  in  a  sys- 
tem of  city  schools  is  to  he  considered  rather  an  officer  of  the  school 
board  than  a  memher  of  the  corps  of  teachers.  The  words  principal  and 
superintendent  are  often  used  interchangeably  in  the  West.  When  the 


DUTIES  OF  TEACHERS  49 

ties,  when,  as  Mr.  Page  advises,  the  teacher  has  "  imbued 
himself  with  a  feeling  of  the  importance  of  his  work."  This 
feeling,  which  every  true  teacher  possesses,  will  lead  him 
to  avail  himself  of  all  the  training  for  his  high  office  that 
his  time,  means,  and  opportunity  will  permit.  It  will  cause 
him  to  feel  that  his  educational  journal  is  a  necessity.  It 
will  prompt  him  to  procure  and  read  books  on  pedagogics 
and  school  management.  It  will  cause  him  to  acquaint 
himself  more  fully  with  the  master  minds  of  the  great 
literary  world.  It  will  lead  him  into  the  State  Teachers' 
Reading  Circle.  It  will  send  him  to  the  university  or  to 
the  normal  school.  He  will  not  dare  to  come  before  pupils 
upon  whom,  he  realizes,  he  is  to  make  impressions  which 
will  last  to  eternity,  unless  he  has  availed  himself  of 
every  possible  aid  within  reach. 

It  is  true,  as  Mr.  Page  remarks,  that  all  this  will  inspire 
in  his  employers  confidence  in  his  abilities.  But  if  he 
wishes  to  put  into  practice  the  ideas  of  method  which  he 
has  received  at  the  normal  school,  or  which,  as  a  result  of 
his  training,  he  has  been  able  to  work  out  for  himself  —  if 
he  wishes  to  put  these  into  practice  in  a  community  in 
which  the  schools  have  not  been  in  touch  with  the  advanc- 
ing thought  of  the  educational  world,  I  am  sure  there  will 
be  need  for  the  greatest  degree  of  tact.  He  wishes  to  use 
clay  modeling,  perhaps.  It  may  be  that  he  wishes  to  throw 
geography  and  history  together,  and  so  gain  time  in  his 
work.  Perhaps  it  is  some  form  of  manual  training  that  he 
wishes  to  add.  Perhaps  he  insists  that  spelling  must  be 
more  than  the  memorizing  of  words  of  whose  meaning  the 
child  has  no  more  conception  than  of  differential  calculus. 

aggregate  enrollment  of  pupils  is  1200  or  more,  there  is  need  for  a  city 
superintendent,  whose  work  is  materially  different  from  that  of  the  prin- 
cipal of  a  graded  school.  The  relations  of  the  city  school  superintendent 
to  the  principals  and  teachers  are  discussed  in  books  on  school  supervision. 
The  county  superintendent,  like  the  city  superintendent,  is  a  school  officer 
rather  than  a  teacher,  and  is  to  be  considered  as  the  representative  of  a 
board  of  education. 

scii.  INT.  &  DUX. — 4 


50  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

It  may  be  that  he  wishes  to  provide  on  his  programme  a 
place  for  music  and  drawing. 

He  will  find,  in  many  school  districts  and  towns,  that 
unless  he  acts  with  great  tact  and  discretion,  there  will  be 
much  looking  askance  at  his  innovations.  By  a  wise  pro- 
cedure, he  may  bring  the  greater  part  of  the  community  to 
see  that  he  is  not  chasing  "  fads,"  but  is  really  introducing 
into  the  school  the  things  that  will  tend  to  its  improvement 
and  the  good  of  the  children. 

Many  a  teacher,  full  of  the  enthusiasm  of  his  high  call- 
ing, has  applied  himself  with  much  vigor  to  bringing  about 
a  revolution  in  the  educational  life  of  his  school.  Starting 
in  with  the  confidence  of  the  people,  he  has  quickly  turned 
their  confidence  to  suspicion  by  attacking  the  old  methods 
with  sharp  criticism.  Unwittingly,  he  has  struck  at  the 
pride  of  the  community,  which  may  be  loth  to  be  told  of  its 
ignorance  and  its  ultra  conservatism.  More  is  accomplished 
by  gentlemanly  courtesy  than  by  blustering  or  by  stubborn- 
ness. It  is  better  to  go  slowly  and  obtain  what  you  want 
than  to  demand  it  quickly  and  fail  to  get  it  at  all. 

The  Teacher  an  Adviser.  —  The  teacher  should  be  compe- 
tent to  give  advice  on  every  matter  relating  to  the  school. 
He  should  fully  acquaint  himself  with  its  material  and  edu- 
cational needs.  He  should  become  familiar  with  the  leading 
principles  of  school  architecture,  lighting,  heating,  and  ven- 
tilation, according  to  later  authorities  on  these  subjects. 
Unfortunately,  these  are  matters  upon  which  many  who 
have  been  long  engaged  in  educational  work  have  but  a 
very  limited  knowledge. 

A  teacher's  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  requirements 
of  good  text-books,  and  with  the  comparative  merits  of 
various  books  in  the  same  lines  of  work,  will  add  to  the 
confidence  which  the  school  officer  will  repose  in  his  judg- 
ment. This  is  a  matter  upon  which  the  actual  teacher,  of 
all  persons,  should  be  competent  to  pass  judgment  in  the 
light  of  experience. 


DUTIES  OF  TEACHERS  51 

It  is  inevitable  that  text-books  will  be  changed,  from  time 
to  time.  The  change  should  be  made  always  for  a  better 
and  more  suitable  work.  It  should  never  be  made  without 
a  careful  investigation  and  comparison  of  the  books  under 
consideration. 

The  teacher  should  be  a  competent  judge  of  suitable  books 
for  the  general  reading  of  children.  The  subject  of  school 
libraries  and  Pupils'  Reading  Circles  is  discussed  elsewhere 
in  this  volume.  The  enterprising  teacher  will  not  fail  to 
interest  himself  in  the  matter  of  a  local  supply  of  accessible 
and  suitable  books  of  general  reading  for  the  young. 

The  Teacher's  Relations  to  School  Officers.  —  The  teacher 
should  well  understand  his  relation  to  the  school  officers. 
In  the  following  chapter  the  history  of  the  school  officer  is 
given,  and  his  relations  to  the  teacher  are  discussed.  The 
question  of  the  relation  of  the  two  is  not  clearly  defined,  as 
yet,  by  the  legislatures  and  courts.  It  is  recognized  that 
the  teacher  has  authority  derived  from  other  sources  than 
the  officer  or  the  school  board,  but  the  scope  of  his  authority 
independent  of  that  which  the  trustee  or  the  board  confers 
upon  him  is  not  clearly  defined. 

It  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  understand  as  clearly  as  he 
can  his  rights  under  the  law,  and  his  independent  authority. 
It  is  not  meant  to  be  said  that  he  must  be  a  lawyer,  but  he 
should  acquaint  himself  with  the  records  in  cases  which  touch 
upon  this  subject.  There  are  several  journals  now  published 
which  make  a  point  of  presenting  digests  of  all  such  cases. 
By  a  study  of  these,  he  can  bring  himself  to  a  position 
where  he  can  render  unto  the  trustees  the  things  that  are 
theirs,  and  reserve  for  himself  the  things  that  are  his  own. 

In  all  this  there  is  no  thought  of  encouraging  or  suggest- 
ing an  attitude  of  opposition,  or  of  defiance  to  the  board. 
It  must  be  clearly  understood  that  this  is  not  what  is  meant. 
On  the  contrary,  the  teacher  should  always  yield  a  willing 
and  ready  obedience  to  the  school  board.  In  all  matters  of 
general  management  the  directions  of  the  trustees  are  to  be 


52  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

followed  most  implicitly,  in  so  far,  of  course,  as  they  do  not 
violate  the  conscientious  scruples  of  the  teacher. 

It  is  possible  to  secure  the  best  results  only  when  the 
school  officers  and  the  teacher  are  acting  in  hearty  accord. 
The  teacher's  opinion  should  be  asked  (since  he  is  an  expert, 
or  is  supposed  to  be),  in  determining  the  final  action  of  the 
board  on  matters  which  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  educa- 
tional side  of  its  duties. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  said  that,  in  a  way  not  in- 
consistent with  self-respect,  the  teacher  should  show  respect 
to  the  trustee,  as  such,  even  though  the  latter  be  not  the 
equal  of  the  teacher  socially  and  in  point  of  culture.  There 
is,  of  course,  a  kind  of  respect  which  is  naturally  shown  for 
the  man  to  whom  one  owes  his  place,  and  upon  whose  favor 
"  bread  and  butter,"  perhaps,  depends.  But,  it  is  insisted, 
respect  is  due  to  his  position  as  an  officer  of  the  school  dis- 
trict or  city,  aside  from  any  selfish  show  of  respect  for 
an  employer.  This  is  a  fact  often  lost  sight  of  by  young 
teachers,  and  sometimes  by  older  ones. 

It  is  often  the  case  that  the  trustee  is  inferior  in  point  of 
scholarship.  He  may  be  unlettered,  indeed,  and  may  be  a 
good  officer  for  all  that.  More  often  than  otherwise  it  is 
the  case  that  the  trustee  is  selected  on  account  of  other 
qualifications  than  those  of  scholarship.  Men  of  little  or  no 
erudition  have  fought  their  way  to  the  front  in  spite  of  diffi- 
culties. They  often  make  very  good  officers,  because  they 
are  eager  to  do  what  they  can  to  remove  obstacles  from  the 
paths  of  the  young  people  coming  to  manhood  under  more 
favorable  circumstances.  They  may  be  good  managers  in 
matters  of  finance.  Public  funds  should  receive  more  care 
and  should  be  regarded  more  sacredly  than  private  capital. 
Too  often  men  are  extremely  reckless  in  the  disbursement 
or  investment  of  public  moneys,  acting  under  a  strange 
notion  that  when  the  owner  is  the  many  the  trust  is  not  at 
all  so  sacred  as  when  the  owner  is  a  single  person  or  a  small 
number  of  persons  acting  as  a  company.  Men  of  this  class 


DUTIES   OF  TEACHERS  53 

should  have  no  place  on  the  school  board.  Very  often  school 
committeemen  are  selected  who  will  be  sure  to  handle  with 
proper  care  the  people's  money. 

Again,  it  may  be  that  persons  of  recognized  tact  and  skill  in 
molding  opinion  are  for  this  specific  reason  selected  as  trus- 
tees. These  are  usually  gentlemen  of  long  experience  and 
sagacious  insight,  and  they  are  expected  to  bring  to  bear  upon 
the  important  affairs  of  the  school  the  same  critical  judgment 
which  they  have  been  observed  to  display  in  the  management 
of  private  affairs  and  the  direction  of  public  movements. 
The  point  we  wish  to  make  is,  that  there  is  usually  a  good 
reason  behind  the  elevation  of  every  man  who  is  selected  by 
the  community  to  take  charge  of  the  affairs  of  the  school. 

Teachers  sometimes  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  officers 
are  selected  for  the  foregoing  and  other  similar  reasons. 
Before  them  rises  the  idea  that  scholarship  is  the  essential 
attribute  of  the  good  trustee.  Especially  is  this  the  case 
with  the  younger  teachers,  who  are  not  apt  to  think  much 
of  other  reasons  for  the  choosing  of  officers.  They  are  in- 
clined to  think  that  the  business  men  and  the  professional 
men  not  trained  in  the  university  can  have  none  but  old- 
fashioned  educational  ideas. 

The  scholar  should  be  on  the  board,  it  is  true.  His  broad 
view  will  work  out  clearly  the  ends  to  be  accomplished,  by 
shaping  the.  course  aright.  He  can  show  that  the  truest  econ- 
omy does  not  lie  always  in  the  direction  of  the  least  expendi- 
ture. But  others  than  the  scholar  may  be  educated  too.  I 
have  met  many  men  who  have  had  no  conception  of  Greek 
roots,  and  who  could  not  analyze  a  simple  flower,  but  who 
have  had  a  sufficient  degree  of  culture  to  recognize  the  literary 
beauty,  as  well  as  to  feel  the  moral  uplift,  of  the  twenty- 
third  Psalm,  and  to  whom 

—  "  The  meanest  flower  that  blooms  can  give 
Thoughts  that  do  often  lie  too  deep  for  tears." 

Are  such  men  out  of  place  on  the  school  committee  ? 


54  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Whether  the  trustee  be  educated  or  not,  whether  he  be  a 
scholar  or  not,  whether  he  be  or  be  not  a  man  of  financial 
and  executive  ability  or  a  man  of  influential  standing,  the 
teacher  owes  him  a  respect  as  an  officer  and  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  people.  It  is  pleasant  to  see  added  to  such 
respect  the  warmth  of  personal  friendship  and  regard. 

Many  teachers  find  themselves  in  an  attitude  of  opposi- 
tion to  the  board  when  it  is  entirely  unnecessary  that  such 
should  be  the  case.  Principals  who  possess  little  tact,  who 
regard  the  views  of  the  trustees  as  of  no  importance,  and, 
without  really  stopping  to  consider  them,  condemn  them  be- 
forehand because  they  do  not  conform  to  the  notions  of  their 
own  pet  theorists  or  to  the  supposed  principles  of  their  latest 
and  best-varnished  hobbies,  come  into  collision  with  the 
board  very  soon;  and  usually  it  is  not  the  board  that  is 
injured  by  the  contact. 

It  is  true,  too  true,  that  teachers  are  sometimes  apt  to  be 
ardent  supporters  of  the  latest  fad.  We  mount  a  fresh  hobby 
periodically,  and  from  what  we  consider  to  be  its  lofty  eleva- 
tion, we  cannot  see  that  the  broad  common  sense  of  the 
practical  school  men  would  have  given  us  a  better  lift,  had 
we  permitted  them,  and  that,  after  much  hard  spurring,  we 
have  not  been  able  to  get  past  the  starting  post. 


CHAPTER   III 
DUTIES  OF  SCHOOL  OFFICERS 

Absolute  and  Relative  Duties.  —  The  absolute  duties  of 
school  officers  are  definitely  laid  down  in  the  statute  books. 
Direction  is  there  given  them  to  raise  money  for  school  pur- 
poses, to  erect  suitable  buildings,  to  employ  teachers,  and, 
generally,  to  oversee  the  operations  of  the  school.  These 
duties  are  performed  often  with  a  perfunctory  reference 
to  the  position  and  not  with  the  idea  of  rendering  a  service 
to  the  community  and  the  State  by  providing  the  best 
means  for  the  education  of  the  youth. 

With  this  latter  view  in  mind,  many  duties  which  seemed 
absolute  become  relative,  and  the  school  officer  sees  that 
there  is  need  of  cooperation  with  parent  and  teacher  to 
secure  the  best  results.  It  is  with  a  view  of  pointing  out 
some  of  these  mutual  duties  that  this  chapter  is  written. 

The  school  officer  is  comparatively  a  .new  creation.  The 
change  in  the  management  of  schools  gave  rise  to  his  office. 
In  former  years,  each  schoolmaster  was  proprietor  of  his 
school.  Each  school  was  independent  of  every  other  school, 
and  was  supported  by  tuition  charges. 

When  the  system  of  free  schools  was  established,  it  became 
necessary  to  have  the  people  represented  by  a  trustee  or  a 
board  of  trustees.  Before  the  institution  of  this  office,  but 
after  the  control  of  the  school  had  passed  from  the  direct 
charge  of  the  patrons,  its  duties  were  incidentally  per- 
formed by  other  officers  of  the  town.  The  earliest  record 
we  have  of  a  school  committee  in  the  United  States  is  in  the 

55 


56  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Massachusetts  law  of  1826,  which,  provided  that  the  towns 
of  that  State  should  select  them. 

The  School  Officer  and  the  Teacher.  —  The  school,  it  must 
be  remembered,  is  a  very  ancient  institution.  We  have 
records  of  English  schools  which  extend  backward  to  the 
time  of  Edward  III.,  while  the  early  schools  and  famous 
teachers  of  Judea  and  Egypt  and  Greece  and  Rome  are 
familiar  to  all  readers  of  history. 

The  teacher,  therefore,  had  acquired  a  distinct  legal 
status  long  before  the  creation  of  the  school  officer.  Defi- 
nite and  clear  rights  had  become  his  by  decisions  of  courts 
in  matters  of  controversy,  and  by  long-continued  usage. 
These  rights  and  powers  are  now  his  rather  by  a  sort  of 
educational  common  law  than  by  statutory  enactment ;  and 
they  exist  independently  of  the  authority  of  the  trustee. 
An  erroneous  idea  is  prevalent  that  the  teacher  derives  all 
the  authority  he  has  from  the  officer  who  employs  him. 

The  distinction  between  the  powers  and  duties  of  each  are 
very  clearly  set  forth  in  an  excellent  address  read  by  Supt.  A.  P. 
Marble,  formerly  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  now  of  Omaha,  Neb., 
before  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the  National 
Educational  Association  at  its  Washington  meeting,  in  1877. 

Superintendent  Marble  says :  "  There  is  the  same  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  as  between  the  common  law  and  the 
code,  as  I  understand  it ;  the  same  as  between  the  constitution 
of  England,  which  is  known  through  a  body  of  precedents, 
and  the  Constitution  of  this  country,  which  is  a  written 
document ;  the  same  distinction  which  is  found  between  the 
officers  of  an  ancient  monarchy,  who  find  their  powers  in 
long-established  usage,  and  the  officers  of  a  new  republic, 
where  the  duty  of  each  officer  is  specifically  defined  by  law. 

"My  idea  of  the  relation  between  the  teacher  and  the 
school  officer  may  be  still  further  illustrated  by  the  author- 
ity of  the  State,  as  compared  with  the  National  Government. 
The  State  is  a  sovereignty;  but  in  entering  the  Federal 
Government  and  becoming  a  part  of  one  great  Nation,  the 


DUTIES   OF  SCHOOL   OFFICERS  57 

State  has  surrendered  a  specific  part  of  that  general  and 
undefined  power  called  sovereignty.  If  we  inquire  what 
are  the  powers  of  the  Federal  Government,  we  must  seek 
them  in  the  Constitution.  If  we  seek  to  know  what  a  State 
may  do,  we  find  nothing  definite ;  everything  which  a  sov- 
ereign power  may  do  belongs  to  the  State  to  do,  except 
what  has  been  surrendered  in  the  National  Constitution. 

"  In  like  manner  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  teacher  in 
the  public  schools  include  everything  that  is  inherent  in  the 
office  of  teacher,  in  the  broad  understanding  of  that  term 
which  we  have  from  tradition ;  and  the  exceptions  to  this 
broad  and  general  authority  of  the  teacher  are  found  in  the 
specific  laws,  and  what  belongs  to  them  by  implication, 
which  prescribe  certain  powers  and  duties  to  school  officers. 

"The  modern  public  school  teacher  is  the  traditional 
teacher  shorn  of  certain  functions  which  have  been  by 
specific  laws  imposed  upon  the  school  officer.  We  find  the 
authority  and  duty  of  the  teacher  by  subtraction  —  by  elim- 
inating from  the  general  notion  of  what  belongs  to  the 
teacher  all  that  has  been  assigned  to  the  school  officer.  We 
find  the  authority  and  duty  of  the  school  officer,  on  the 
other  hand,  by  addition  —  by  augmenting  the  general  notion 
of  what  belongs  to  the  proprietors  or  the  founders  of  a 
school  (like  the  chartered  schools  of  England,  for  example), 
by  the  specific  duties  assigned  to  these  officers  from  time  to 
time  in  the  law. 

"  Traditionally,  then,  the  teacher  stands  in  the  place  of 
the  parent  for  all  the  broad  purposes  of  education.  What- 
ever belongs  to  the  parent  belongs  to  him  in  this  regard, 
and  the  parent's  rights  and  duties  are  inferior  to  no  earthly 
power.  Parents  are  responsible  for  their  children,  and  their 
authority  is  commensurate  with  their  duty.  Under  the 
Koman  law  the  lives,  even,  of  children  were  in  the  hands  of 
parents.  Under  our  modern  laws  these  extremes  of  paren- 
tal authority  have  been  abridged,  but  parents  may  still 
exercise  all  reasonable  control  over  their  children.  For  the 


58  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

purposes  of  the  school,  and  while  in  school,  the  teacher 
assumes  all  these  broad  powers  of  the  parent. 

"  In  very  early  times  the  teacher  instructed  and  guided 
those  who  resorted  to  him  voluntarily,  attracted  by  the 
power  of  his  wisdom.  Such  a  teacher  was  Socrates,  and 
Plato,  and  Aristotle.  Mediaeval  schools  founded  by  chari- 
table donations,  established  by  those  who  had  charge  of  the 
foundations  and  who  selected  the  teachers,  were  administered 
by  the  teachers.  The  pupils  were  intrusted  to  them  by  the 
parents,  who  delegated  their  authority  to  those  teachers. 
So  it  was  in  the  chartered  schools  of  England.  Magister, 
the  master,  is  a  term  which  implies  authority.  In  those 
schools,  even  to  this  day,  the  student  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
master,  or  teacher,  whose  authority  is  as  unlimited  as  that 
of  the  parents.  The  right  to  inflict  punishment,  and  every 
other  reasonable  right,  belongs  to  the  teacher  and  is  intrusted 
to  him  by  the  parent. 

"  This  traditional  notion  of  the  teacher's  power  and  duties 
is  recognized  in  the  school  laws  of  every  State.  In  these 
laws  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  teacher,  and  what  a  school 
is,  are  assumed  to  be  known. 

"  No  specific  duties  are  assigned  to  the  teacher  except  the 
implied  duty  of  teaching  a  good  school.  There  is  a  singular 
absence  of  all  law  on  the  subject.  The  only  duties  specifi- 
cally assigned  to  the  teacher  are  of  a  merely  formal  charac- 
ter, such  as  having  a  license  or  certificate  of  qualification  to 
teach,  and  making  out  and  certifying  certain  school  statistics. 
All  the  functions  belonging  to  the  teacher  are  left  to  be  in- 
ferred from  the  traditional  notion  of  what  a  teacher  is,  and 
from  the  purposes  of  the  school,  which  are  the  right  nurture 
and  training  of  youth.  The  only  exception  to  the  above  — 
the  only  specific  duty  of  teachers  in  the  laws  —  relates  to 
moral  culture.  It  is  expressed  in  the  statutes  of  Massachu- 
setts as  follows : 

" '  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  instructors  of  youth  to  exert 
their  best  endeavors  to  impress  on  the  minds  of  children  and 


DVTIES  OF  SCHOOL   OFFICERS  59 

youth  committed  to  their  care  and  instruction  the  principles 
of  piety  and  justice,  and  a  sacred  regard  to  truth,  love  of 
their  country,  humanity,  and  universal  benevolence,  sobriety, 
industry,  and  frugality,  chastity,  moderation,  temperance, 
and  those  other  virtues  which  are  the  ornaments  of  human 
society  and  the  basis  upon  which  a  republican  constitution 
is  founded ;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  such  instructors  to 
endeavor  to  lead  their  pupils,  as  their  ages  and  capacities 
•will  admit,  into  a  clear  understanding  of  the  tendency  of  the 
above-mentioned  virtues,  to  preserve  and  perfect  a  republi- 
can constitution  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty,  as  well 
as  to  promote  their  future  happiness,  and  also  to  point  out 
to  them  the  evil  tendencies  of  the  opposite  ones.'  In  spirit, 
though  not  in  terms,  the  laws  of  many,  if  not  most,  of  the 
other  States  contain  the  same.  By  tradition,  then,  confirmed 
by  this  single  statute,  the  education  of  children  is  intrusted 
to  the  teacher  by  the  parents,  and  all  the  powers  of  the  par- 
ents and  all  the  authority  necessary  to  this  great  end  are 
conferred  upon  the  teacher.  This  authority  is  amplified  by 
numerous  decisions  of  the  courts." 

The  Teacher's  Authority.  — Dr.  Emerson  E.  White,  to  whom 
we  have  listened  for  so  many  years  with  delight  and  inter- 
est, and  who  has  said  so  many  wise  things  to  the  teachers  of 
the  country,  has  touched  upon  this  subject  in  his  recent  val- 
uable book  on  School  Management.  He  says : 

"  The  first  of  these  conditions  is  the  teacher's  possession 
of  requisite  authority  —  an  authority  clearly  recognized  by 
pupils  and  patrons,  and  all  others  directly  interested  in  the 
school.  This  is  an  important  condition,  not  only  for  easy  con- 
trol, but  also  for  the  highest  success  in  instruction.  The 
more  the  teacher  represents  officially  as  well  as  personally 
in  a  school,  the  higher  will  be  the  pupils'  confidence  in 
him,  the  easier  his  control,  the  more  effective  his  plans, 
and  the  more  successful  his  efforts.  This  is  an  obvious 
principle — too  obvious  for  extended  discussion,  were  it 
more  generally  observed. 


60  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

"The  teacher  is  not  only  in  loco  parentis,  but  he  also 
stands  in  his  own  place,  and,  in  virtue  of  his  office,  is  vested 
with  rights  and  powers,  as  well  as  with  responsibilities  and 
duties.  It  is  important  that  these  inherent  rights  be  recog- 
nized and  honored  by  all.  It  is  the  beginning  of  serious 
trouble  in  a  school  when  the  officers  thereof  call  in  question 
the  rightful  authority  of  the  teacher,  and  this  is  often  done 
ignorantly. 

"  There  are  not  a  few  persons  who  suppose  that  all  of  the 
teacher's  authority  in  a  school  is  delegated  by  the  school 
board,  and  hence  that  this  authority  may  be  limited  or 
denied  by  such  board  at  its  pleasure.  This  supposition 
overlooks  the  historical  fact  that  the  teacher  existed  long 
before  the  school  board,  and  that,  in  virtue  of  his  office,  he 
was  endowed  with  inherent  rights  and  authority.  The  law 
nowhere  denies  or  annuls  these  historic  and  inherent  teaching 
powers,  nor  does  it  invest  them  in  the  school  board.  They  re- 
main with  the  teacher,  an  essential  attribute  of  his  high  office. 

"  It  is  true  that  the  law  gives  school  boards  the  power  to 
employ  teachers,  to  prescribe  courses  of  study  and  instruction, 
and  to  exercise  supervisory  authority  over  the  schools ;  but 
supervision  is  not  teaching,  and  the  supervisory  function  as 
embodied  in  the  school  board  does  not  include  teaching  func- 
tions. The  school  board  may  employ  teachers ;  but  neither 
its  officers  nor  its  members  are  teachers,  and  they  cannot 
wisely  or  legally  exercise  teaching  powers  or  functions.1 


1  Superintendent  Marble,  in  discussing  the  relative  duties  of  school  offi- 
cers and  teachers,  advances  an  opinion  sustained  by  a  decision  of  the  courts, 
and  also  by  no  less  an  authority  than  Horace  Mann.  Says  Mr.  Marble : 

"  The  power  of  inspecting  and  examining  a  school  gives  the  school 
officer  the  right  to  act  as  teacher  for  the  time  being.  In  the  examination 
he  may  listen  while  the  teacher  conducts  the  exercise,  or  he  may  conduct 
it  himself  and  require  the  teacher  to  listen,  and  while  performing  this  duty 
he  is  clothed  with  all  the  authority  of  the  teacher,  and  he  may  apply  cor- 
rection and  discipline  while  acting  in  this  capacity.  (Peck  v.  Smith,  41 
Conn.,  442.)  " 

On  this  point  we  have  also  the  opinion  of  one  of  the  most  eminent  edu- 
cational writers,  Horace  Mann : 


DUTIES   OF  SCHOOL   OFFICERS  61 

"  The  authority  of  the  school  board  to  prescribe  needful 
regulations  for  the  government  of  the  schools  ought  not  to 
be  construed  as  conferring  the  right  to  abridge  or  annul 
inherent  teaching  powers.  Rules  relating  to  the  details  of 
instruction  and  discipline  should,  for  this  reason,  be  most 
carefully  considered.  No  school  board,  for  example,  can 
rightfully  prescribe  that  teachers  shall  punish  with  a  rod 
any  pupil  who  whispers  without  permission,  this  being  a 
clear  assumption  of  the  teaching  function ;  but  a  board  may 
properly  enact,  if  this  be  necessary,  that  no  pupil  shall  be 
punished  with  a  rod  for  failing  in  a  lesson,  such  punishment 
being  a  clear  abuse  of  the  teacher's  authority,  and,  it  may 
be  added,  an  abuse  so  obvious  that  no  regulation  ought  to 
be  required  for  its  correction. 

"  As  a  rule,  school  regulations  touching  the  details  of  dis- 
cipline and  instruction,  if  enacted,  should  be  prohibitory  of 
obvious  abuses,  and  not  didactic  or  directive.  It  is  the 
teacher's  function  to  determine  when  punishment  is  required, 
to  devise  detailed  plans  of  instruction,  to  assign  lessons  and 


"  During  the  period  of  visitation  the  committee  have  the  entire  control 
of  the  school.  For  the  time  being  it  is  their  school,  and  the  teacher  is 
their  servant.  They  may  decide  what  classes  shall  be  called  upon  to  per- 
form exercises  and  in  what  studies.  They  may  direct  the  teacher  to  con- 
duct the  examination  or  may  conduct  it  wholly  themselves,  or  they  may 
combine  both  methods.  In  fine,  they  may  dismiss  the  teacher  for  the  hour 
and  pursue  the  examination  in  his  absence.  Should  any  scholar  misbehave 
himself  or  prove  refractory  or  contumacious  to  the  committee  while  they 
are  engaged  in  examining  the  school,  it  is  presumed  that  they  have  an 
authority  to  suspend,  to  expel,  or  to  punish  on  the  spot,  in  the  same  way 
as  the  teacher  may  do  in  case  of  like  misconduct  committed  against  him- 
self. (10th  Reps.,  p.  183.)" 

In  spite  of  the  eminence  of  this  authority,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that 
Superintendent  White  has  the  true  idea.  It  seems  that  Superintendent 
Marble's  own  words,  contained  in  the  same  address  and  quoted  in  another 
place,  would  be  the  best  argument  against  the  view  he  expresses  here.  As 
for  Horace  Mann,  it  is  clear  that  it  had  not  occurred  to  him  that  the  teacher 
has  other  powers  than  those  conferred  upon  him  by  the  school  board.  It 
is  evident  that  he  wrote  with  the  idea  (which  is  still  so  prevalent)  that  the 
teacher's  powers  are  a  delegation  of  the  board's  powers.  It  seems  to  us 
absurd  to  think  of  the  trustee  as  standing  in  loco  parentis.  School  officers 
cannot  in  any  way  usurp  the  teaching  function. 


62  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

exercises,  to  decide  when  they  are  properly  prepared,  and  to 
determine  the  steps  to  be  taken  in  reaching  a  desired  result. 
These  and  other  like  duties  are  elements  of  teaching,  and  as 
such  belong  primarily  to  the  teacher. 

"  One  of  the  tendencies  in  present  school  administration 
that  most  needs  correction  is  an  increasing  assumption  by 
school  officers  of  the  rights  and  duties  inherent  in  the  teach- 
er's office.  This  tendency  is  not  only  seen  in  school  regula- 
tions that  violate  the  principles  above  stated,  but  more 
seriously  in  supervision,  and  especially  in  supervision  by  mem- 
bers of  school  boards,  acting  as  individuals  or  as  committees. 

"  It  is  believed  to  be  not  an  uncommon  thing  for  a  school 
director  or  trustee  to  dictate  to  teachers  the  methods  to  be 
used  in  teaching  given  subjects,  and  also  what  they  are  to 
require  the  pupils  to  do.  Teachers  are  told  authoritatively 
that  they  must  not  require  pupils  to  prepare  spelling  lessons 
by  writing ;  that  all  spelling  exercises  must  be  oral ;  that 
pupils  must  be  taught  the  alphabet  before  they  attempt  to 
read;  that  pupils  must  be  permitted  to  read  at  least  one 
verse  each,  and  that  they  must  read  twice  a  day ;  that  the 
pupils  must  recite  by  turn;  that  pupils  must  not  ' begin 
multiplication"'  until  they  have  learned  the  multiplication 
table ;  that  the  rules  in  arithmetic  must  be  learned  by  heart 
before  any  problems  are  solved ;  that  the  text  in  geography 
must  be  committed  to  memory ;  that  no  wall  maps  are  to  be 
used  in  recitations ;  that  all  tables  in  primary  grades  are  to 
be  recited  in  concert,  etc. 

"  It  is  easy  to  see  the  mischief  which  must  result  from 
such  official  dictation  in  the  details  of  teaching,  and  it  is 
obvious  that  such  dictation  is  even  more  mischievous,  and 
perhaps  more  common,  with  reference  to  discipline ;  and  all 
this  mischief  may  be  done  by  a  school  officer  without  his  even 
dreaming  that  neither  the  law  nor  the  school  regulations  give 
him  an  iota  of  official  authority  in  these  matters ;  that  he  has 
no  more  legal  right  l  to  play  teacher '  in  the  schools  than 
any  other  citizen. 


DUTIES   OF  SCHOOL   OFFICERS  63 

"  It  may,  of  course,  be  entirely  proper  for  a  school  director 
or  cominitteeman  to  call  attention  to  what  may  seem  defects 
in  a  school,  or  to  make  suggestions  looking  to  its  improve- 
ment —  and  every  true  teacher  will  welcome  such  efforts  to 
render  assistance  —  but  we  are  not  now  considering  the  pro- 
priety of  official  ad t- ice,  but  of  authoritative  direction  —  a 
very  different  matter. 

"It  is  believed  that  there  are  thousands  of  American 
teachers,  especially  in  country  districts,  who  are  not  teach- 
ing according  to  their  best  knowledge  or  best  judgment, 
because  of  official  interference  or  the  fear  of  it;  and  for  this 
reason  hundreds  of  schools  are  in  disorder,  with  a  sacrifice 
of  needed  efficiency  and  progress. 

'•'  What  a  happy  change  would  occur  in  these  schools  were 
the  teachers  officially  encouraged  to  do  their  best,  and,  to 
this  end,  to  seek  for  the  most  helpful  information  and  the 
most  approved  plans  and  methods !  If  this  were  done,  in 
the  place  of  stagnation  and  dull  routine  there  would  soon 
appear  order,  life,  and  progress. 

"  This  mistake  of  official  dictation  is  sometimes  made  by 
superintendents  and  principals ;  and  it  always  occurs  when 
a  superintendent  prescribes  the  details  of  instruction  and 
discipline,  and  then  enforces  the  same  by  personal  oversight 
and  direction  of  the  teacher's  work.  Such  a  course  of  pro- 
cedure reduces  the  teacher  to  an  operative,  and  is  subversive 
of  all  true  teaching. 

"The  most  helpful  supervision  does  not  dictate  or  pre- 
scribe details ;  but  it  asks  for  results,  and  then  so  instructs, 
inspires,  and  guides  teachers,  that  they  freely  put  their  best 
thought  and  effort  into  whatever  they  do.  This  means  pro- 
fessional progress,  growth  in  skill,  and  increasing  success." 

Needs  of  the  Community.  —  So  much  for  the  question  of 
authority.  As  has  been  said,  the  absolute  duties  of  the 
school  trustee  are  laid  down  in  the  statute  books.  While 
they  are,  for  the  most  part,  duties  which  he  can  perform 
perfunctorily,  they  will  become  relative  duties  if  he  be  a 


64  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

• 

citizen  who  has  at  heart  the  best  interests  of  the  community. 
That  is,  he  will  consult  the  needs  of  the  school  and  the  inter- 
ests of  the  community  in  performing  the  statutory  require- 
ments of  his  office.  He  will  act  in  cooperation  with  the 
parents  and  with  the  teacher  in  providing  for  the  necessities 
of  the  school. 

A  careful  consideration  of  the  real  needs  and  wishes 
of  the  school  community  is  the  first  duty  of  the  school 
officer.  It  is  not  meant  by  this  statement  that  the  trustee 
is  not  to  act  for  himself.  Indeed,  very  much  of  the  power 
he  will  wield,  very  much  of  the  efficiency  he  will  have  as  a 
public  servant,  will  depend  upon  the  firmness  with  which 
he  holds  to  decisions  once  made,  after  the  exercise  of  care- 
ful judgment.  All  his  actions  must  be  the  result  of  his 
independent  thought  in  regard  to  the  matter  under  consid- 
eration. Unless  such  conclusions  are  reached  under  a  mis- 
apprehension of  the  facts,  he  must  stand  by  them. 

However  much  this  is  true,  it  is  also  true  that  important 
action  should  be  taken  only  after  careful  study  of  the  best 
interests  of  both  parties,  and,  in  many  cases,  after  seeking  the 
advice  of  parents  and  teachers.  For  example,  let  us  take 
the  case  of  the  town  or  city  where  there  is  a  superintendent 
of  schools  and  a  board  of  education.  It  is  clearly  under  the 
authority  of  the  school  board  to  select  teachers  and  text- 
books. But  these  selections  should  be  made  only  after  con- 
sultation with  the  superintendent  or  teacher  in  charge.  He 
is  an  expert  in  such  matters.  In  fact,  while  the  names  of 
teachers  of  graded  schools  should  be  passed  upon  by  the 
committee  on  teachers,  yet  the  selections  should  be  left 
largely  to  the  principal,  or  superintendent.  He  has  oppor- 
tunities for  judging  from  an  educational  standpoint  the 
merits  of  individual  teachers,  and  of  determining  the  extent 
of  their  pedagogical  training.  Virtually  the  selection  of 
the  corps  of  teachers  should  be  in  his  hands. 

Again,  the  principal  or  superintendent,  and  expert  teachers 
in  his  corps,  should  be  competent  to  decide  as  to  the  merits 


DUTIES  OF  SCHOOL   OFFICERS  65 

of  books  recommended  for  adoption.  It  is  not  only  a  ques- 
tion of  the  facts  contained  in  a  book,  but  it  is  also  a  question 
of  arrangement  and  presentation  of  those  facts.  The  prin- 
cipal or  superintendent  is  the  expert  selected  by  the  school 
committee,  who  is  competent  to  pass  upon  these  matters. 

In  the  selection  of  the  school  site  and  a  plan  for  the  build- 
ing, and  in  the  expenditures  of  the  school,  the  advice  of  the 
patrons  as  well  as  that  of  the  superintendent  should  be  val- 
uable to  the  board.  Miscellaneous  and  public  advice  and 
criticism  are,  of  course,  annoying.  But  the  members  can 
sound  the  sentiment  of  the  men  who,  they  know,  represent 
the  best  thought  of  the  community  in  such  matters,  and 
profit  by  their  word  of  advice.  These  are  matters  in  which 
they  have  the  right  to  advise.  These  are  matters  in  which 
they  are  vitally  interested. 

The  school  board  is  sometimes  between  two  fires.  There 
may  be  a  strong  sentiment  in  the  community  opposed  to  the 
carrying  forward  of  innovations  just  as  strongly  recom- 
mended by  the  superintendent  and  another  faction.  In 
that  case  it  will  have  to  weigh  carefully  the  situation,  and, 
having  arrived  at  a  conclusion  which  seems  best  for  the 
school,  announce  it  boldly  and  carry  forward  its  plans. 

Personal  Responsibility.  —  Every  member  should  feel  his 
personal  responsibility.  It  is  now  the  custom  to  refer  to 
committees,  departments  of  business  which  belong  to  the 
province  of  the  board.  There  are  committees  on  build- 
ings and  grounds,  committees  on  text-books,  committees  on 
teachers  and  salaries,  committees  on  ways  and  means,  etc. 
This  is  an  excellent  plan,  and  is,  indeed,  the  only  practicable 
plan  where  the  business  of  the  board  is  large. 

In  too  many  cases,  however,  members  feel  relieved  from 
any  responsibility  as  to  matters  which  have  been  referred 
to,  or  are  under  the  authority  of,  committees  of  which  they 
do  not  happen  to  be  members.  It  is  true  that  the  committee 
is  to  make  of  the  subject  referred  to  it  a  careful  and  special 
study ;  but,  after  all,  its  decision  is  not  final, 
sen.  INT.  &  DUX. — 5 


66  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

The  committee  simply  reports  a  plan  which  seems  to  it, 
under  the  circumstances,  to  be  the  best.  It  is  the  duty  of 
the  other  members  of  the  board  to  exercise  their  individual 
judgment  in  the  matter,  and  act  accordingly.  It  is  not  right 
for  them  to  vote  favorably  on  the  committee's  report  solely 
because  they  have  confidence  in  the  committee.  Their  indi- 
vidual responsibility  should  be  remembered.  Too  often 
honest  members  of  corrupt  boards  have  gone  down  in  the 
gloom  of  ignominy  with  corrupt  official  associates  simply 
because  they  have  not  possessed  this  sense  of  personal 
responsibility. 

Officers  Responsible  for  Teachers'  Recompense. — Boards 
should  see  that  suitable  recompense  is  given  to  the  teacher. 
The  needs  of  the  teacher  have  been  discussed  in  another 
chapter.  The  school  board  should  have  an  appreciation  of 
these.  They  must  remember  the  great  responsibility,  the 
duty,  "  vastly  great,"  of  the  teacher.  They  should  not  em- 
ploy teachers  who  do  not  feel  the  need  of  libraries  or  who 
do  not  care  to  become  members  of  the  Eeading  Circle  or  to 
subscribe  for  educational  journals. 

School  boards  should  appreciate  the  great  good  which 
teachers  derive  from  an  occasional  visit  to  other  schools. 
These  often  require  some  expenditure  of  money.  The  board 
should  expect  the  teachers  to  wish  to  make  such  visits,  and 
should  have  this  in  mind  when  it  is  considering  the  matter 
of  compensation. 

All  live  teachers  will  make  it  a  point  to  attend  the  County, 
State,  and  possibly  the  National  Association  meetings.  It  is 
right  that  they  should.  They  derive  inestimable  benefit 
from  the  discussion  of  difficulties  with  which  they  meet 
from  day  to  day ;  from  the  deeper  thought  of  trained  ex- 
perts in  the  investigation  of  special  lines  of  inquiry ;  from 
the  contact  with  the  great  men  of  the  profession ;  from  the 
travel  to  and  from  the  place  of  meeting ;  from  the  profes- 
sional interest  and  enthusiasm  and  sociability  always  so  man- 
ifest when  many  who  have  the  same  ends  in  view  assemble 


DUTIES   OF  SCHOOL    OFFICERS  67 

on  such  occasions.  The  school  board  should  have  this  fact 
in  view  when  it  considers  the  matter  of  teachers'  salaries. 

We  feel  that  we  cannot  speak  too  often  or  too  urgently  of 
the  salary  question.  So  long  as  teachers  are  poorly  paid, 
we  cannot  expect  many  of  the  best  men  and  women  to 
remain  in  the  profession.  They  cannot  afford  to  do  so.  Or 
if  they  do  remain,  they  are  prevented  from  working  up  to 
the  full  measure  of  their  abilities  and  from  following  out 
their  cherished  plans  for  extending  their  usefulness. 

Dignity  and  Common  Sense.  —  School  officers  should  pos- 
sess personal  dignity,  and  be  free  from  affectation.  There 
are  many  qualifications  for  office  considered  in  the  selection 
of  trustees.  Each  member  is  supposedly  chosen  on  account 
of  some  special  qualification  which  fits  him  for  the  position. 
He  is  either  a  man  of  business  experience,  or  of  high  and 
influential  social  standing,  or  of  known  scholarship,  or  all 
three.  He  is  not  —  or  at  least  he  should  not  be  —  a  man 
taken  at  random  or  appointed  in  payment  of  political  services 
rendered  his  party.  The  selection  is,  or  should  be,  made 
carefully  and  for  some  good  reason/ 

It  is  sometimes  the  case  that  men  who  exhibit  good  sense 
in  every  position  and  experience  in  life,  but  who  do  not 
possess  high  educational  qualifications,  are  selected  for  the 
office,  and  make  good  officers.  If  they  do  not  make  the 
mistake  of  considering  their  election  an  indorsement  of  sup- 
posed scholarship  which  they  do  not  really  possess,  and  if 
they  bring  to  the  discharge  of  their  duties  their  customary 
good  sense,  they  are  valuable  members  of  the  board. 

It  is  sometimes  the  case,  however,  that  a  member  of  this 
kind,  who  is  really  a  hard-headed  man  of  business  and  is 
trusted  by  the  community,  takes  his  selection  as  a  school 
officer  as  a  recognition  of  scholarship.  Because  of  the  fact 
that  he  is  connected  with  the  schools  it  follows  (to  him,  of 
course)  that  he  must  be  a  person  who  represents  the  learning 
of  the  whole  township  or  city.  He  forgets  that  the  man  of 
little  scholarship  may  be  really  a  man  of  broad  practical 


68  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

education.  He  fails  to  see  that  a  man  may  be  broad  enough 
to  be  alive  to  the  advance  of  the  times  and  the  needs  of  the 
school  of  to-day,  and  yet  be  a  little  slipshod  in  his  spelling. 
He  thinks  that  it  is  his  duty  to  present  himself  to  the  school 
as  representing  scholarship,  rather  than  an  executive  trust. 

Such  a  one  must  have  been  a  school  officer  who  lived  in 
Indiana,  according  to  a  well-known  legend  of  that  State. 
Having  been  appointed  trustee  —  so  the  story  goes  —  and 
the  school  having  been  in  session  for  a  few  weeks,  he  visited 
it  one  afternoon,  full  of  the  idea  of  making  an  impression. 
A  class  in  reading  was  reciting.  The  subject  matter  of  the 
selection  in  hand  was  historical,  and  the  word  massacre 
occurred  once  or  twice  in  the  course  of  the  lesson.  It  fell  to 
a  luckless,  tow-headed  little  boy  to  read  a  paragraph  con- 
taining it.  The  boy  read  well,  and  all  was  well  until  he 
reached  this  word,  which  he  pronounced  correctly.  Here 
was  the  trustee's  opportunity.  Frightening  the  boy  with 
an  awful  frown,  he  said : 

«  What's  that,  sir  ?     How  did  you  call  that  word  ?  " 

Again  the  boy  pronounced  the  word  correctly. 

"Don't  you  see,"  thundered  the  school  magnate,  "that 
m-a-s-s-a,  massa,  c-r-e,  kree,  spells  massakree  ?  M-a-s-s-a-c-r-e, 
massakree ! " 

The  teacher  interposed  here,  with  the  explanation  that  she 
was  responsible  for  the  pronunciation,  and  added,  quietly,  "  I 
think  Webster  will  give  us  authority  for  the  way  we  have 
been  pronouncing  it." 

"'Bring  me  the  Dictionary,"  ordered  the  trustee,  pom- 
pously, feeling  certain  that  he  would  be  vindicated,  since 
or-e  could  spell  nothing  but  kree. 

The  Dictionary  was  brought  to  the  great  man's  knee,  and, 
amid  a  breathless  silence  of  some  moments,  his  great  fingers 
laboriously  searched  the  columns  for  the  word.  Finally  it 
was  found.  He  studied  it  for  a  few  more  painful  moments. 
He  adjusted  his  steel-bowed  glasses,  and  studied  it  further. 
At  last,  when  convinced  that  his  eyes  were  not  deceiving 


DUTIES   OF  SCHOOL   OFFICERS  69 

him,  he  closed  the  big  book  with  a  bang,  and  remarked, 
impressively  : 

••  Well,  I  should  never  have  believed  that  Daniel  Webster 
could  have  made  a  mistake  like  that ! " 

Of  course,  this  is  an  extreme  case.  Yet  occasionally  we 
hear  of  a  trustee  or  other  officer  who  imagines  himself  to  be 
invested  with  superior  erudition  and  a  pompous  dignity  on 
account  of  his  selection  as  one  able  to  manage  school  affairs. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  kind  of  dignity  which  the 
school  officer  should  have.  Indeed,  he  will  have  it  if  he  be 
selected  on  account  of  experience  and  breadth  of  view,  and 
if  he  be  the  proper  man  for  the  community  to  select.  It  is 
the  kind  of  dignity  that  will  enable  him  to  bear  himself 
with  ease  at  the  gathering  of  the  people  on  formal  occa- 
sions, as  commencements. 

It  is  becoming  customary  to  dispense  with  the  old-style 
commencements,  and  to  substitute  therefor  an  address  by 
some  distinguished  stranger.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  have 
these  addresses,  for  they  are  a  potent  means  of  education  in 
themselves ;  but  the  loss  of  the  old  commencement  is  to  be 
deplored.  The  essays  of  the  young  people,  the  white 
dresses,  the  ribbons,  the  flowers,  and  the  address  and  pres- 
entation of  the  diplomas  by  the  president  of  the  board  —  all 
these  have  their  effect,  and,  somehow,  without  them  there 
would  be  a  loss  of  some  of  the  crowning  glories  of  the 
scholar-life,  a  lack  of  something  of  which  the  stranger's 
address,  however  profound  or  brilliant,  could  not  take  the 
place. 

The  members  of  the  school  board  should  be  men  whose 
personal  dignity  will  cause  them  to  grace  an  occasion  of  this 
kind,  and  will  bring  to  all  occasions  a  sense  of  respect  for 
the  position,  as  one  bestowed  only  upon  those  fitted  for  it  by 
the  quality  of  their  citizenship. 

Good  Tools  and  Appointments.  —  The  school  officers  should 
be  free  in  supplying  material  necessities.  We  are  always 
ready  to  assent  to  the  statement  that  if  the  carpenter  is  to 


70  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

perform  a  piece  of  particularly  fine  work  he  will  need  other 
tools  than  a  hatchet  and  a  jackknife.  He  may  get  along, 
slowly  but  well  enough,  with  his  hatchet  and  knife  in  work 
where  the  boards  do  not  need  to  be  smooth  and  polished  or 
the  joints  close.  But  we  are  usually  willing  to  concede  that, 
even  in  his  rough  labor,  he  can  work  more  rapidly  and  with" 
better  satisfaction  for  his  patron  with  additional  tools. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  teachers'  needs  of  tools  will  be 
recognized  as  quickly  and  his  demand  for  supplies  answered 
as  promptly  as  the  carpenter's  are.  The  school  needs 
good  blackboards,  charts,  maps,  globes,  and  apparatus  for 
experiments  in  physics  and  chemistry,  botany,  and  zoology. 
Above  all  it  needs  books  —  dictionaries,  cyclopedias,  refer- 
ence books  of  historical  and  mythological  and  biographical 
subjects,  and  supplementary  texts  in  all  the  studies  of  the 
curriculum.  It  is  not  necessary  to  point  out  how  necessary 
it  is  that  the  pupil  observe  for  himself,  how  important  that 
he  be  not  confined  to  the  narrow  bounds  of  the  text-book 
of  a  single  writer. 

The  needs  of  the  school  are  many.  The  trustees,  while 
making  the  most  prudent  and  economical  expenditure  of  the 
public  finances,  should  see  that  the  work  of  education  is  not 
hampered.  Often  petty  economy  is  really  the  greatest  ex- 
travagance. Procuring  the  best  there  is  for  the  children, 
and  using  it  under  competent  direction,  is  the  greatest 
economy,  because  it  is  the  investment  that  will  bring  the 
largest  returns. 

The  subject  of  school  architecture  and  appointments, 
including  the  various  considerations  of  heating,  ventilation, 
lighting,  etc.,  is  one  of  very  great  importance  to  the  school 
officer,  for  it  has  much  to  do  with  the  comfort,  health,  and 
advancement  of  the  pupils  of  every  school.  It  is  a  subject 
with  which  he  should  be  familiar  in  all  its  bearings,  to  the 
end  that  his  worthy  efforts  may  be  seconded  by  an  enlight- 
ened judgment  in  all  his  acts  relating  to  the  material  well- 
being  of  teachers  and  pupils. 


Ill 

SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE 
SCHOOL  HYGIENE 


CHAPTER   IV 
SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE  i 

Site  and  Surroundings. —  The  choice  of  site  and  orientation 
of  the  school  building  being  determined,  certain  details  of 
planting  and  laying  out  the  school  lot  remain  to  be  considered 
before  the  requirements  of  the  schoolhouse  itself  are  taken 
up.  If  anything  in  the  size  of  the  lot  or  the  conformation 
of  the  ground  prevents  ample  space  from  being  given  to  the 
rear  playground,  it  is  much  better  to  set  the  building  as  far 
back  as  possible,  and  give  up  the  front  space  to  the  children's 
games.  Not  only  will  the  available  area  be  thus  made  the 
most  of,  but,  if  the  schoolhouse  is  judiciously  arranged,  the 
playground  will  be  brought  on  the  south  side  of  the  building 
and  sheltered  from  cold  winds,  while  the  sun  reflected  from 
the  walls  will  add  much  to  its  cheerfulness. 

The  ground  should  be  grassed  over  with  the  closest  and 
thickest  turf  possible,  and  baseball  stations  and  similar 
places  of  excessive  wear  should  be  shifted  every  few  weeks, 
to  prevent  the  sod  from  being  trodden  away  entirely. 
Wherever  the  natural  sod  is  good,  it  is  best  to  leave  it  in- 
tact, as  a  thick  sod  is  of  very  slow  growth.  Defective  places 
may  be  patched,  during  the  construction  of  the  schoolhouse, 
with  sods  from  the  site  of  the  building  and  from  the  paths. 

If  new  grading  makes  it  necessary  to  raise  the  grass  from 
the  beginning,  all  the  loam  accessible  should  be  spread  upon 
the  surface.  Two  feet  in  depth  of  rich  loam  is  not  too  much ; 

1  The  greater  part  of  this  chapter  is  taken  from  one  of  the  bulletins  of 
the  National  Bureau  of  Education,  prepared  by  T.  M.  Clark,  an  eminent 
architect  of  Boston. 

73 


74  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

the  growth,  of  the  sod  will  be  much  more  rapid  in  such  a 
soil;  and  the  whole  should  be  thickly  sown  with  red-top 
grass,  with  a  little  admixture  of  white  clover.  The  front 
space,  where  such  an  area  is  reserved  distinct  from  the 
playground,  may  be  treated  differently  by  planting  with 
trees,  particularly  evergreens  and  flowering  shrubs,  only 
taking  care  that  no  tree  of  any  kind  is  allowed  to  stand  at  a 
less  distance  from  the  schoolhouse  than  twice  its  own  natural 
height  when  fully  grown.  The  good  effect  of  trees  is  reversed 
by  allowing  them  to  stand  too  near  a  building. 

Lighting.  —  The  essential  consideration  which  should  de- 
termine the  orientation  of  the  schoolhouse  proper  absolutely, 
without  reference  to  street  lines  or  grades,  is  the  lighting  of 
the  several  rooms.  We  know  that  the  sun  rises  in  the  east, 
is  at  its  highest  point  in  the  south,  and  sets  in  the  west ;  we 
know  also  positively  the  good  and  bad  effects  of  different 
kinds  and  degrees  of  lighting  and  varying  amounts  of  sun- 
shine upon  the  eyesight  and  health  of  children ;  hence  we 
can  deduce  plain  rules  for  laying  down  the  lines  of  the  rooms 
which  they  are  to  occupy,  and  these  rules  cannot  be  violated 
in  deference  to  a  real  or  supposed  .necessity,  without  detri- 
ment to  the  usefulness  of  the  building. 

It  is  agreed  by  all  authorities  that  the  most  comfortable 
and  wholesome  light  for  the  eyes  is  that  coming  from  one 
side  of  the  room,  without  interfering  crosslights  from 
windows  in  the  opposite  side  or  from  front  or  rear,  and  it 
is  furthermore  desirable  that  the  light  should  come  from  a 
group  of  windows,  or  a  single  one,  rather  than  from  a  suc- 
cession of  them  separated  by  wide  piers,  which  cast  annoy- 
ing shadows. 

For  writing  or  drawing,  the  light  should  come  from  the 
left,  not  exactly  at  the  side,  but  a  little  in  front ;  then  neither 
the  head,  the  right  hand,  nor  the  pen  will  cast  a  shadow  on 
the  paper.  For  reading,  the  light  may  come  from  either  side, 
indifferently,  but  should  be  a  little  back,  that  it  may  shine 
brightly  on  the  page.  For  any  purpose,  the  window  must 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  75 

not  be  far  off,  or  the  light  will  be  too  dim,  even  though  it 
may  come  from  the  right  quarter. 

In  arranging  the  more  important  schools,  containing  four 
or  more  class  rooms  on  a  floor,  only  two  modes  of  lighting 
are  practicable  :  one,  by  windows  in  two  adjacent  sides  ;  the 
other,  by  windows  in  one  side  only. 

Of  these  two  alternatives,  the  latter  should  always  be 
chosen.  The  confusion  of  crosslights  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  and  the  shadow  of  the  head  thrown  forward  are  injuri- 
ous to  the  eyes,  and  the  slight  advantage  to  be  gained  for 
ventilation  by  windows  in  the  adjacent  sides  of  a  large  room 
is  not  sufficient  to  weigh  against  the  defectiveness  of  the 
lighting  so  obtained. 

The  openings  in  the  one  illuminated  side  should  be  numer- 
ous and  large,  otherwise  the  more  distant  portions  of  the 
room  will  be  too  dark  ;  and  the  seats  should  be  arranged  in 
such  a  way  that  the  light  in  each  room  will  fall  upon  the 
left  side  of  the  pupils. 

Under  this  arrangement,  with  lofty  rooms  and  large  open- 
ings, the  comfort  of  the  eyes  is  at  its  highest  point,  and  it 
is  therefore  compulsory  in  all  German  schools  of  every  grade, 
and  has  become  a  common  requirement  in  planning  the 
better  class  of  school  buildings  in  this  country. 

For  our  climate,  however,  it  may  be  seriously  questioned 
whether,  in  small  houses  of  one  or  two  rooms,  the  value  dur- 
ing the  hot  weather  of  the  cross  ventilation  obtained  by 
opening  windows  in  two  opposite  walls  should  not  compen- 
sate for  the  inferior  quality  of  the  lighting. 

Some  French  schools  have  endeavored  to  meet  the  diffi- 
culty and  combine  good  light  with  ventilation  by  piercing 
two  opposite  walls  with  windows  and  then  concealing  those 
on  one  side  by  permanent  screens,  like  blinds,  which  allow 
the  air  to  pass,  but  not  the  light. 

This  expedient  answers  for  high  and  well-lighted  rooms, 
but  there  is  a  further  difficulty  in  the  fact  that  in  our  low- 
studded  district  and  ungraded  schools  it  is  impracticable  to 


76  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

admit  from  a  single  side  sufficient  light  to  supply  the  needs 
of  the  scholars. 

The  minimum  approved  proportion  of  window  opening  for 
a  schoolroom  is  set  down  at  one  sixth  of  the  floor  area,  most 
authorities  demanding  much  more.  In  one  of  our  average 
rooms,  30  by  40  feet,  the  necessary  window  area  would  thus 
be  200  square  feet.  Unless  this  amount  of  glass  surface  is 
provided,  the  pupils  in  the  parts  of  the  room  farthest  from 
the  windows  will  suffer  from  insufficient  light,  which  is  far 
worse  for  the  eyes  than  any  possible  crosslights. 

Now,  a  simple  calculation  will  show  that,  supposing  the 
ceiling  to  be  12  feet  high  and  the  windows  to  extend  from  a 
line  4  feet  above  the  floor  to  within  a  foot  of  the  ceiling,  to 
obtain  the  amount  of  opening  demanded  would  require  a  suc- 
cession of  windows,  say  3-J-  feet  each  in  width,  occupying 
the  entire  length  of  the  longest  side  of  the  room,  with  piers 
between,  only  12  inches  wide. 

It  is  plain  that  such  a  construction,  though  not  impossible, 
is  very  different  from  anything  which  has  ever  been  seen  in 
our  country  schoolhouses ;  yet  nothing  short  of  this  would 
give  the  remoter  parts  of  the  room  even  a  bare  sufficiency 
of  light,  and  not  that,  if  any  darkening  by  shades  or  blinds 
were  permitted. 

From  these  reasons  it  follows,  we  think  necessarily,  that 
whatever  may  be  the  best  practice  in  large  buildings,  whose 
high  stories  admit  the  requisite  surface  of  glass  without 
reducing  the  piers  to  an  impracticable  slenderness,  and 
where  artificial  or  forced  ventilation  keeps  the  air  fresh 
without  effort,  small  buildings  of  cheap  construction  can,  as 
a  rule,  be  neither  properly  lighted  nor  efficiently  ventilated 
without  windows  in  two  walls,  and  these  walls  should  be 
those  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  pupils  as  seated. 

By  this  arrangement  ample  window  space  can  be  easily 
given,  with  allowance  for  partial  darkening  by  blinds  at 
times.  The  light,  though  less  comfortable  to  the  eyes  of 
perhaps  half  of  the  pupils  than  would  be  that  from  a  single 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  77 

direction,  will  be  more  comfortable  to  the  remaining  half, 
and  far  more  so  to  all,  teachers  included,  than  would  be  the 
case  with  windows  in  two  adjacent  walls ;  while  the  advan- 
tage of  being  able  to  change  the  air  of  the  room  in  a  few 
moments  by  opening  windows  in  opposite  sides,  or  by  the 
same  means  to  maintain  a  current  in  hot  weather,  is,  in  our 
climate,  of  very  great  importance. 

Adopting,  therefore,  the  principle  of  lighting  by  opposite 
windows,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  most  advantageous 
aspect  for  these  windows ;  in  other  words,  presuming  that 
the  openings  will  be  made  in  the  longer  side  of  the  parallelo- 
gram which  constitutes  the  plan  of  the  main  schoolroom, 
the  proper  direction  of  the  longer  axis  of  the  room  is  to  be 
determined  with  reference  to  the  effect  of  sunshine  in  the 
room  at  different  times  of  the  day. 

So  far  as  the  comfort  of  the  eyes  is  concerned,  the  north 
light  is  preferable,  as  it  is  comparatively  unvarying,  and 
through  windows  so  directed  there  will  be  no  sunshine  dur- 
ing school  hours,  and  therefore  no  need  of  shades  or  blinds, 
which  are  always  to  be  avoided  if  possible.  But  the  health 
of  children  in  other  respects  suffers  very  seriously  from  the 
deprivation  of  the  sun's  direct  rays,  so  that  steadiness  of 
light  must  be  sacrificed  to  the  necessity  for  admitting  them. 
Even  the  German  rules  recognize  this,  and  require  that  while 
no  room  shall  have  windows  on  two  sides,  only  drawing  class 
rooms  shall  face  the  north. 

Xext  to  the  north  aspect,  the  steadiest  light,  as  well  as 
the  greatest  amount  of  sunshine,  is  derived  from  one  due 
south ;  and  while  a  south  window  receives  the  sun  nearly 
all  day  the  year  round,  the  angle  at  which  it  enters  is  so 
great  that  the  annoyance  from  it  in  hot  weather  is  infinitely 
less  than  from  the  horizontal  rays  which  stream  through  an 
east  or  west  window  at  certain  times.  For  this  reason,  a 
south  exposure  is  both  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in 
winter  than  an  eastern  or  western  one ;  and  while  it  secures 
the  largest  possible  aggregate  of  sunshine,  a  south  window 


78  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

needs  less  shading  with  blinds  or  curtains  than  any  other 
except  one  facing  north. 

On  the  whole,  therefore,  although  some  authorities  hold  a 
different  opinion,  the  writer  believes  that  the  main  room  or 
rooms  in  small  school  buildings  will  be  best  placed  with  the 
longer  axis  directed  due  east  and  west,  and  lighted  by  win- 
dows in  the  north  and  south  sides  only. 

With  windows  in  the  east  and  west  walls,  as  some  advise, 
the  sun's  rays  will  indeed  traverse  the  room  from  side  to 
side,  but  only  at  the  times  when  their  purifying  and  light- 
giving  quality  is  at  its  least  and  their  power  of  annoyance 
at  its  highest. 

Such  a  room  is  unendurable  in  summer  afternoons  without 
much  pulling  down  of  shades  and  closing  of  shutters  —  pro- 
cesses as  disturbing  to  the  quiet  of  the  school  as  they  are 
injurious  to  the  eyes  of  the  scholar  —  while  at  the  same 
time  the  summer  breeze  is  shut  out  together  with  the  sun- 
light. 

In  winter  a  room  so  lighted  is  chilled  on  either  side  alter- 
nately, according  as  the  northwest  winds  of  March  or  the 
easterly  gales  strike  upon  the  exposed  surface  of  glass,  mak- 
ing the  room  difficult  to  warm  unless  by  using  two  furnaces  — 
one  or  the  other  to  be  used,  according  to  which  side  may  be 
the  cold  one  for  the  time  being. 

With  north  and  south  lighting,  all  these  difficulties  vanish. 
The  condition  of  the  room  in  relation  to  the  furnaces  will  in 
winter  be  always  the  same,  the  north  side  being  constantly 
cold  and  the  south  side  warm,  so  that  a  single  stove  or  fur- 
nace placed  near  the  north  wall  will  at  all  times  diffuse  its 
heat  uniformly  through  the  room.  In  summer,  the  north 
windows  will  never  need  shading  and  those  on  the  south  side 
only  to  a  small  extent.  In  winter  the  range  would  be  much 
greater,  though  the  annoyance  would  at  that  season  be  far 
less.  In  any  case,  the  shading  of  a  small  fraction  of  the 
window  surface  will  cut  off  all  the  rays  which  can  possibly 
shine  upon  any  desk,  while  a  west  window  can  be  effectually 


SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE  79 

shaded  only  by  closing  every  crevice  through  which  a  hori- 
zontal beam  can  pierce. 

The  advantage  in  hot  weather  of  being  able  to  have  all  the 
apertures  on  both  sides  of  the  room  wide  open,  with  frac- 
tional shades,  if  any,  on  the  south  windows,  can  be  best 
appreciated  by  those  who  have  tried  both  systems  of  orien- 
tation. 

Xor  is  the  sunning  of  the  room  by  south  windows  less 
effectual,  but  more  so,  than  by  east  and  west  windows.  The 
most  obvious  influence  of  sunshine  upon  the  atmosphere  of 
a  room  is  to  set  it  in  motion,  the  chemical  processes  of  deoxi- 
dation  or  decomposition  being  too  obscure  for  our  senses; 
but  both  chemical  and  mechanical  effects  are  produced  with 
greater  energy  by  the  noonday  beams  than  by  the  heating, 
though  lifeless,  rays  of  a  horizontal  sun,  and  the  circulation 
between  the  north  and  south  sides  of  a  room  lighted  from 
both  quarters  is  the  more  active  and  constant  by  reason  of 
the  great  dissimilarity  in  their  condition,  one  being  always 
shaded  and  cold  and  the  other  always  warm. 

The  shape  and  size  of  the  sashes  is  an  important  matter. 
The  height  of  the  room  will  be  generally  about  12  feet, 
and  if  the  windows  are  carried  to  within  6  inches  of  the 
ceiling  the  total  height  of  the 'frame  will  be  7-J-  to  8J  feet. 
So  high  a  sash  ought  not  to  be  over  3  feet  wide,  and  both 
parts  should  be  well  counterbalanced,  so  as  <*£*^to  encour- 
age their  frequent  opening.  A  heavy  or  badly-hung  sash 
will  rarely  be  opened,  from  the  simple  physical  inability  of 
teacher  and  children  to  manage  it. 

A  ring  should  be  screwed  into  the  top  of  the  upper  sash, 
and  a  pole  and  hook  provided  to  operate  it.  The  glass  should 
be  in  rather  small  lights,  for  cheapness  of  repairs,  and  double 
thick  on  all  exposed  sides.  The  English  double-thick  is 
heavier  than  the  common  kind. 

Shades  and  blinds  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible. 
Outside  blinds  are  generally  condemned  by  writers  on  school 
architecture,  as  liable  to  get  out  of  repair  and  difficult  to 


80  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

manage.  Moreover,  they  require  so  much  wall  space,  to  fold 
back  against,  as  to  restrict  the  number  of  windows  and  pre- 
vent the  grouping  with  small  piers,  which  gives  the  best 
light. 

Inside  shutters  may  be  used  where  brick  walls  or  furred 
projections  give  the  necessary  space  for  folding  them  back ; 
or,  better  still,  Venetian  blinds  can  be  easily  made  or 
obtained,  which  pull  up  against  the  soffit  of  the  frame  by 
means  of  a  cord  passing  through  holes  in  the  ends  of  each 
slat,  and  attached  to  the  lowest  one.  These  are  made  both 
of  wood  and  iron.  Still  better,  but  more  costly,  are  the  roll- 
ing shutters,  which  coil,  by  means  of  a  spring,  into  a  box 
either  above  or  below. 

^  The  cheapest  device  of  all  is  the  ordinary  shade,  which 
should  be  made  of  stout  holland,  never  of  paper  or  painted 
cotton,  and  strongly  and  accurately  hung.  This  has  the 
objection  of  shutting  out  air  in  summer,  as  well  as  sun ;  and 
a  modification  may  be  used,  consisting  of  a  short  curtain, 
only  half  the  height  of  the  window,  and  moving  up  and 
down  by  means  of  the  ordinary  brass  pulleys  and  endless 
cords,  to  which  it  is  secured  along  the  edges  by  rings  and 
hooks. 

This  will  be  quite  sufficient  to  intercept  all  unwelcome*, 
sunshine,  and  will  still  leave  half  the  window  opening  free 
for  admission  of  air.  The  securing  of  each  edge  of  the 
cord  keeps  the  shades  stretched  and  in  good  condition  indefi- 
nitely, and  no  rollers  or  springs  are  required.  For  the  north 
windows  no  shade  whatever  will  be  necessary. 

It  is  important  that  the  sills  of  the  windows  should  be  as 
much  as  4  feet  above  the  floor.  If  less  than  this  they 
cause  a  glare  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  sitting  near  them. 
The  danger  which  some  writers  fear  that  high  window  sills 
will  develop  an  irresistible  inclination  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils  to  climb  up  on  them,  in  order  to  see  out,  may  be  coun- 
teracted, perhaps,  by  increased  effort  to  make  the  school- 
room itself  attractive. 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  81 

To  compensate  for  the  height  of  the  sills  above  the  floor, 
the  window  heads  should  be  carried  as  close  to  the  ceiling 
as  the  construction  will  admit.  Four  inches  is  all  the  dis- 
tance which  need  generally  be  given  in  frame  structures, 
and  even  in  brick  buildings  the  sash  can  be  carried  nearly 
as  high,  as  will  be  seen  further  on.  The  illumination  of 
the  ceiling  so  obtained  is  of  the  greatest  value,  the  light 
reflected  from  it  being  peculiarly  soft  and  grateful  to  the 
eyes,  while  the  proper  ventilation  of  the  room  is  greatly 
assisted  by  making  the  windows  as  high  as  possible. 

Aspect  must  also  be  considered  in  regard  to  entrances, 
which,  in  a  word,  should  always  face  the  south.  A  south 
entrance  gives  a  breathing  place  for  the  children  in  rainy  or 
blustering  weather,  as  they  approach  or  leave  the  building, 
and  protection  to  the  interior  from  the  March  northwesters 
or  easterly  rain  storms,  which  will  blow  in  at  an  outside 
door  exposed  to  them  with  such  force  as  to  make  themselves 
felt  through  the  whole  schoolroom  whenever  the  door  is 
opened ;  it  gives  dry  and  clean  approaches  to  the  build- 
ing after  snowstorms,  in  place  of  impassable  drifts,  and  — 
last  but  not  least  —  shelter  for  those  too  punctual  scholars 
who  are  sure  to  arrive  before  the  building  is  open  in  the 
morning. 

So  important  has  experience  shown  the  southerly  aspect 
for  entrances  to  be,  that  to  this  necessity  is  perhaps  due  the 
fashion  of  east  and  west  lighting  for  the  schoolroom  proper. 
The  "  classical "  style  of  school  planning  not  being  able  to 
conceive  of  entrances  in  any  other  position  than  in  the  gable 
end  of  a  building,  a  south  door  involved  necessarily  east  and 
west  windows,  and  vice  versa.  Now,  however,  the  specter 
of  the  Greeks  has  ceased  to  reign  over  our  architecture,  and 
whatever  ingenuity  is  shown  in  contriving  south  windows  as 
well  as  doors  will  be  rewarded  by  the  applause  of  the  elders 
as  well  as  the  gratitude  of  the  children. 

There  may  be  situations  where  a  south  exposure  is  im- 
practicable for  one  or  both  entrances.  In  such  a  case, 

SCH.  INT.   &  BUT. 6 


82  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

much  may  be  done  by  contriving  porches,  which,  although 
entered  from  the  east  or  west,  or  even  from  the  north,  can 
have  wide  windows  toward  the  south,  and  angles  or  screens 
which  may  shelter  the  early  arrivals  from  the  cold  winds. 

Arrangement  of  the  Schoolhouse.  —  The  arrangement  of 
the  schoolhouse  itself  is  now  to  be  considered,  keeping  in 
view  the  requirements  as  to  lighting  and  aspect  of  main 
room  and  entrances,  which  have  already  been  discussed  and 
accepted  as  settled  for  all  cases  where  imperative  necessity 
does  not  overrule  them.  But  if  certain  further  general  rules 
can  be  deduced  from  study  of  the  habits  and  necessities  of 
teachers  and  scholars,  it  does  not  follow  that  such  rules  will 
be  universally  applicable.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  few 
cases  where  a  very  considerable  amount  of  ingenuity  will  not 
be  necessary  to  adapt  the  form  and  arrangement  of  building 
acknowledged  to  be  the  best  in  theory  to  the  different  exi- 
gencies of  situation,  size,  or  cost,  which  must  to  some  extent 
govern  in  each  particular  instance ;  and  it  should  be  one 
of  the  recognized  duties  of  school  superintendents  to  see 
that  a  due  degree  of  mental  energy  is  expended  upon  the 
problem. 

It  is  most  unwise  to  delegate  to  the  builder  the  task  of 
shaping  a  model  plan  to  fit  a  particular  position.  Not  only 
will  he  generally  lack  the  knowledge,  if  not  the  disposition, 
requisite  for  determining  the  dimensions  of  the  rooms  with 
that  close  regard  to  the  number  of  pupils,  the  mode  of  seat- 
ing, the  kind  and  therefore  the  size  of  desks,  the  formation 
of  classes  and  consequently  the  width  needful  for  aisles, 
the  best  mode  of  heating  and  ventilation  under  the  given 
circumstances,  which  is  necessary  to  success ;  but,  even  if 
fortified  with  what  he  supposes  to  be  ample  experience,  his 
knowledge  will  very  often  prove  to  be  derived  from  books 
or  works  which,  however  good  in  their  time,  have  in  the 
rapid  development  of  modern  sanitary  and  social  science 
long  since  become  obsolete. 

Tew  persons  know  from  actual  examples  how  greatly  the 


SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE  83 

skillful  planning  of  a  school  building  facilitates  the  work 
carried  on  in  it;  but  an  idea  of  the  possibilities  of  good 
planning  may  be  negatively  arrived  at  by  observing  the  dis- 
advantages of  bad  or  ill  considered  arrangement,  which  may 
be  studied  in  great  variety  in  most  of  our  country  schools. 

Let  any  teacher,  superintendent,  or  member  of  a  com- 
mittee, on  visiting  a  school,  notice  for  an  hour  or  so  the 
continual  petty  interruptions,  annoyances,  and  distractions 
caused  to  pupils  and  teachers  in  ordinary  schoolrooms  by 
the  moving  about  to  stir  up  fires  which  have  not  a  proper 
chimney  draught,  or  to  pull  down  shades  for  excluding 
troublesome  sunbeams  ;  by  the  frequent  rests,  sometimes  on 
the  part  of  teacher,  sometimes  of  scholars,  to  relieve  the 
eyes  from  the  painful  glare  of  a  front  light ;  by  the  con- 
fusion and  relaxation  of  discipline  which  follow  the  collision 
of  classes  in  narrow  doorways  or  of  pupils  in  the  tortu- 
ous and  inconvenient  passages  among  the  desks,  and  the 
countless  other  annoyances  which  follow  from  the  improper 
position  of  windows,  desks,  stoves,  and  doors ;  and  he 
will  realize  how  large  is  the  weekly  aggregate  of  time  thus 
wasted. 

The  remedy  for  this  is  thought,  the  careful  thought  of 
some  one  thoroughly  familiar  with  school  business  and 
ready  to  sacrifice  all  other  considerations  to  the  welfare  of 
the  school ;  of  one  who  can  in  imagination  follow  each 
pupil  through  his  work  and  play,  who  can  see  before  him 
the  classes  in  order,  and  can  sympathize  with  the  trials  and 
understand  the  duties  of  teachers  and  pupils.  Such  a  man 
should  sit  in  judgment  upon  every  schoolhouse  plan,  whether 
modest  or  pretentious,  whether  made  by  an  architect  or  by 
the  apprentices  in  the  builder's  shop. 

In  his  criticism  he  should  abandon  at  once  all  those  pre- 
conceived notions  of  symmetry,  proportion,  classic  elegance, 
or  Gothic  aspiration  derived  from  books,  or  from  the  vague 
recollection  of  a  few  examples  which  are  apt  to  influence 
amateurs  much  more  than  architects,  and  devote  himself 


84  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

solely  to  determining  whether  the  heights  of  stories  are 
too  great  for  proper  hearing  or  too  small  for  ventilation ; 
whether  the  staircases  are  wide  enough  and  numerous  enough 
for  safety,  and  not  too  steep  for  little  legs ;  whether  the 
windows  are  sufficiently  high,  and  of  suitable  extent,  and  so 
placed  that  their  light  will  fall  where  it  is  wanted  ;  whether 
the  ventilating  and  warming  apparatus  is  well  out  of  the 
way  of  the  school  operations  ;  and,  unless  he  can  trust  the 
architect's  knowledge,  whether  it  is  judiciously  planned  in 
accordance  with  the  latest  practice. 

The  dimensions  of  the  rooms  should  be  tested  with  refer- 
ence to  the  desks  to  be  put  in  them,  and  the  width  of  the 
resulting  aisles  between  the  desks  calculated  to  an  inch,  in 
order  that  their  sufficiency  may  be  assured,  while  any  super- 
fluity of  space  may  be  curtailed. 

This  most  necessary  work  of  preliminary  criticism,  before 
plans  of  this  kind  are  carried  into  execution,  may  be  per- 
formed by  any  intelligent  teacher  or  school  superintendent, 
with  the  help  of  such  guides  and  books  of  reference  as 
may  be  procurable. 

By  such  individual  thought  and  criticism  only  can  a 
thoroughly  good  mode  of  school  planning  be  formed  in  this 
country,  as  has  been  done  in  England  through  similar  cen- 
sorship, with  the  imperative  demand  that  certain  require- 
ments shall  be  fulfilled ;  and  if  the  following  notes  are 
found  applicable  in  suggesting  and  assisting  such  criticism, 
the  writer  believes  that  this  work  will  be  more  serviceable 
than  if  he  were  to  devote  himself  to  the  collection  of  a 
certain  number  of  model  plans,  which,  however  interesting 
in  themselves,  are  seldom  of  much  service,  except  when 
interpreted  by  the  light  of  well  understood  principles. 

Taking  up  the  component  portions  of  the  proposed  build- 
ings in  the  order  of  their  importance,  the  main  schoolroom 
should  be  considered  in  a  few  words.  The  form  of  this 
room  would  hardly  need  discussion  if  it  were  not  that  fan- 
tastic shapes  are  from  time  to  time  proposed  and  ocea- 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  85 

sionally  adopted.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  figure  long 
proved  to  be  the  best  for  hearing  and  seeing  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils,  with  easy  supervision  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
is  a  parallelogram,  the  length  of  which  is  a  quarter  or  a 
third  greater  than  the  breadth.  In  the  middle  of  one  end 
is  the  desk  of  the  teacher,  who  has  his  school  thus  before 
him,  within  reach  of  his  voice,  and  so  disposed  that  he  can 
observe  every  movement  without  turning  his  head  or  strain- 
ing his  eyes. 

For  supervision  alone  a  long  and  narrow  room  would  be 
most  suitable,  so  that  the  whole  school  would  be  compre- 
hended by  the  teacher  within  a  comparatively  small  angle  of 
vision ;  but  sufficient  width  must  generally  be  provided  for 
drawing  out  classes,  either  in  front  of  or  behind  the  desks, 
and  a  compromise  must  be  made  between  these  two  opposite 
requirements. 

In  accordance  with  the  rules  of  lighting  and  aspect  pre- 
viously proposed,  the  room  will  have  its  longer  axis  directed 
east  and  west,  and  will  be  lighted  by  windows  occupying 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  north  and  south  walls. 

The  entrances,  which  must  be  separate  for  the  two  sexes, 
should  be  so  planned  that  both  boys  and  girls  may  be  under 
the  eye  of  the  teacher,  in  entering  and  leaving  the  room. 
They  may  be  in  the  wall  behind  him  —  a  very  common 
position  —  but  they  are  better  either  in  the  side  or  oppo- 
site end  walls,  so  that,  without  turning  his  head,  his  glance 
may  follow  them  through  the  vestibules  until  they  are  out 
of  the  building.  This  plan  will  prevent  the  silly  tricks 
which  children  carry  on  in  the  vestibules  sheltered  from 
the  teacher's  observation,  to  the  amusement  of  their  fellows 
but  to  the  detriment  of  discipline.  The  best  arrangement 
will  be  to  put  one  entrance  door  in  the  side  wall,  near  the 
teacher's  end  of  the  room,  and  the  other  in  the  opposite 
end  wall. 

The  side  door  may  be  appropriated  to  the  boys,  who  will 
thus  be  nearer  the  teacher  and  more  under  his  control  in 


86  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

entering  and  departing,  and  the  end  door,  which  will  be 
behind  the  pupils,  to  the  girls. 

The  room  being  lighted  alike  on  both  sides,  the  pupils 
may  sit  facing  either  the  east  or  west,  but  there  are  many 
advantages  in  arranging  them  to  face  the  west.  By  this 
disposition  the  girls'  entrance  is  brought  on  the  sunniest 
and  most  sheltered  part  of  the  building,  as  it  should  be, 
and  in  interior  planning  the  stove  or  furnace,  which  must  be 
at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  room,  comes  in  front  of  the 
pupils,  where  it  finds  the  largest  space  and  where  its  heat  is 
diffused  with  the  greatest  comfort  to  all. 

The  best  place  for  the  blackboards  is  the  end  wall  behind 
the  teacher,  the  whole  of  which  will  be  available,  except 
what  small  portion  may  be  occupied  by  doors  to  class  room 
or  teacher's  room.  If  more  space  is  needed,  the  opposite 
end  wall  may  be  used. 

The  piers  beside  the  windows,  though  often  fitted  with 
blackboards,  are  unsuitable.  The  strain  upon  the  eyes  in 
trying  to  decipher  marks  on  boards  so  placed,  in  the  face  of 
the  glare  of  light  from  the  windows,  is  very  severe,  and 
such  positions,  if  occupied  at  all,  should  be  left  for  coarse 
maps  and  diagrams  on  a  large  scale  and  in  bright  colors. 

In  the  simplest  cases,  the  large  schoolroom  and  its  sepa- 
rate entrance  porches  or  vestibules  for  boys  and  girls,  with 
wardrobes  for  each  and  connected  outbuildings,  will  form 
the  whole  of  the  structure. 

More  important  buildings  will  have  in  addition  a  teacher's 
room  and  one  or  more  recitation  rooms ;  but  these  can  and 
should  be  joined  to  the  main  body  without  interfering  with 
the  disposition,  aspect,  or  lighting  of  either  schoolroom  or 
entrances,  the  requirements  for  which  are  the  same  in 
houses  of  all  the  lower  grades. 

A  good  rule  for  vestibules  is  that  the  outside  doors  shall 
be  placed  at  an  angle  with  those  opening  from  the  vestibules 
into  the  schoolroom.  This  will  cut  off  the  direct  impulse  of 
the  wind  and  exclude  draughts  with  ten  times  the  effective- 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  87 

ness  of  outside  and  vestibule  doors  in  parallel  walls.  They 
should  be  light  and  sufficiently  spacious  to  give  the  crowd 
which  pours  out  of  the  schoolroom  doors  at  recess  a  little 
breathing  space  before  they  are  pushed  into  the  open  air. 

Attached  to  each  vestibule  should  be  a  large  wardrobe. 
These  may  open  directly  from  the  schoolroom,  and  should 
always  do  so  where  there  is  danger  of  their  being  robbed ; 
but  the  smell  of  wet  clothes  in  rainy  weather,  especially  in 
poor  neighborhoods,  is  penetrating  and  disagreeable,  and  a 
better  disposition  is  to  open  the  wardrobes  from  the  vesti- 
bules, these  being  at  the  same  time  so  arranged  that  the 
teacher  can  observe  everything  that  goes  on  in  either  of 
them.  With  panels  of  clear  glass  in  the  inner  doors,  these 
can  be  shut  without  interfering  with  this  supervision,  which 
is  useful  also  for  other  purposes. 

Besides  the  wardrobes,  each  vestibule  should  be  furnished 
with  washbowls  and  roller  towels.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
have  expensive  plumbing  to  enable  teachers  and  children  to 
keep  themselves  as  clean  as  they  desire.  All  that  is  need- 
ful is  a  common  cistern  pump  in  each  vestibule,  with  a  lead 
or  enameled  iron  suction  pipe  to  the  well,  and  an  earthen- 
ware or  tinned  copper  basin,  or  a  sink,  if  preferred,  with  a 
waste  pipe  to  a  dry  well  outside.  This  will  cost  a  trifle  — 
perhaps  $50  in  all  —  if  the  well  is  not  far  away.  At  6  per 
cent  interest,  this  would  bring  the  cost  of  keeping  a  school 
of  50  pupils  clean  up  to  6  cents  apiece  each  year. 

A  further  investment  for  towels  and  rollers,  with  weekly 
allowance  for  laundry,  is  advisable,  but  not  absolutely 
necessary. 

The  pumps  may  be  had  with  a  pin  hole  in  the  valve,  so 
that  the  water  cannot  stand  long  enough  in  them  to  freeze, 
and  traps  in  the  waste  pipe  may  be  dispensed  with  as  un- 
necessary, so  that  there  will  be  no  other  part  of  the  appara- 
tus to  be  injured  by  frost. 

On  no  account  must  the  waste  pipe  empty  into  the  privy 
vault.  By  such  carelessness  will  not  only  foul  gases  be 


88  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

poured  into  the  vestibules,  wardrobes,  and  schoolroom,  but 
the  admixture  of  water  renders  the  contents  of  the  vault 
doubly  offensive  and  dangerous. 

In  towns  with  public  water  supply,  the  arrangement  will 
be  a  little  different;  but  some  means  of  cleanliness  may 
always  be  had.  If  nothing  better  offers,  the  rain  water  of 
the  roof  can  be  collected  and  used. 

In  regard  to  certain  other  appliances  for  cleanliness  and 
health  —  perhaps  the  most  essential  of  all  —  much  must 
depend  upon  circumstances.  The  distance  between  the 
best  and  the  worst  is  so  enormous  that  the  writer  can  do  no 
less  than  urge  most  earnestly  that  the  very  best  apparatus 
should  be  always  used  where  it  is  possible.  At  the  same 
time,  he  considers  it  his  duty  not  to  overlook  the  very  poor- 
est and  cheapest  contrivances,  which  must  sometimes  of 
necessity  be  endured. 

It  is  sometimes  asserted  that  a  school  privy  should  never 
be  under  the  same  roof  as  the  schoolroom,  and  certainly 
it  should  not  open  into  it,  nor  should  the  vault  be  placed 
where  its  contents  can  by  any  possibility  contaminate  the 
soil  beneath  the  schoolrooms ;  but  with  proper  construction 
and  ventilation  it  can  be  brought  without  offense,  if  not 
under  the  same  roof,  at  least  within  reach  of  sheltered  and 
decent  communication,  and  one  improperly  built  and  cared 
for  should  not  be  allowed  upon  a  schoolhouse  plot  under  any 
circumstances. 

The  advantages  of  placing  the  closets  in  communication 
with  the  schoolroom  are  numerous.  To  say  nothing  of  the 
dangerous  exposure  in  winter  to  a  delicate  child  in  leaving 
a  hot  room,  and  traversing,  perhaps,  the  length  of  the  play- 
ground to  a  miserable  shed  through  which  the  wind  blows 
freely,  or  of  the  no  less  injurious  repressions  of  the  natural 
functions  which  the  dread  of  such  exposure  occasions,  the 
blunting  of  the  natural  modesty  of  children  and  the  oppor- 
tunity of  corrupting  themselves  and  others  which  is  afforded 
to  the  degraded  ones  by  the  shiftless,  indecent,  and  promis- 


SCHOOL  AECHITECTUEE  89 

cuous  arrangement  and  condition  of  the  ordinary  school 
privies  urgently  demand  that  these  necessary  appliances 
should  receive  at  least  as  much  care  as  the  other  circum- 
stances of  school  life. 

How  deeply  children  may  be  dragged  down  by  their 
school  associations  is  well  known  to  experienced  teachers 
and  physicians ;  and  even  the  public  is  sometimes  startled 
into  attention  by  the  revelation  of  the  condition  into  which 
such  influences,  joined  to  the  horrible  knowledge  derived 
from  the  books  which  certain  criminals  delight  to  scatter 
among  the  young,  may  bring  to  a  school.  Even  young  chil- 
dren are  liable  to  have  a  bias  given  to  their  thoughts -which 
they  will  bitterly  regret  in  later  years. 

For  these  reasons,  all  the  delicate  precautions  with  which 
good  architects  help  the  occupants  of  dwelling  houses  to  con- 
ceal from  each  other  any  suggestion  of  the  degrading  neces- 
sities of  their  common  nature  are  tenfold  more  necessary 
in  planning  for  school  children,  whose  minds  are  far  more 
susceptible  to  the  influence  of  their  material  surroundings, 
while  they  have  not  the  restraint  of  intimacy  and  affection 
to  check  prurient  curiosity. 

In  the  first  place,  the  conveniences  for  the  two  sexes 
should  be  absolutely  separated,  out  of  sight  and  out  of 
mind  each  from  the  other.  They  should  be  well  ventilated, 
a  little  off  the  main  thoroughfare,  but  not  at  the  end  of  a 
long  passageway,  nor  in  any  place  where  one  must  pass  by 
a  window  or  across  a  door  to  reach  them. 

They  should  be,  however,  secluded  in  the  same  group  as 
the  wardrobes  or  woodshed,  so  that  a  person  passing  in  that 
direction  is  not  necessarily  going  to  or  from  them.  This 
seems  a  small  matter,  but  it  is  not ;  it  is  one  of  the  estab- 
lished rules  of  planning  among  architects,  and  especially  in 
planning  for  children,  whose  modesty  it  is  peculiarly  neces- 
sary to  consider.  Yet  the  closets  should  not  be  far  removed 
from  the  observation  of  the  teacher,  or  even  from  supervi- 
sion by  the  public  opinion  of  the  scholars. 


90  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

As  the  dark  and  filthy  outhouse,  scrawled  with  obscenity 
by  wandering  tramps,  induces  carelessness  in  children,  if 
nothing  worse,  so  a  light  and  neatly  finished  closet,  with 
proper  provisions  of  urinals  and  water-tight  floors,  will  be 
an  object  of  pride  even  among  boys,  and  they  will  readily 
cooperate  with  a  teacher  in  keeping  it  clean  and  discounte- 
nancing the  filthy  habits  of  the  rougher  class. 

But,  to  remove  temptation,  all  should  be  light,  open,  and 
in  a  sense  public,  each  latrine  to  its  own  sex.  There  should 
be  conveniences  enough  for  all  the  children.  Dark  corners 
should  be  avoided,  inside  as  well  as  outside  the  building, 
and  such  angles  as  cannot  be  dispensed  with  should  be  over- 
looked by  windows  from  some  frequented  place.  Even 
clumps  of  shrubbery  should  be  so  arranged  as  not  to  form 
retreats  for  careless  or  dirty  boys.  This  care  in  arrange- 
ment, so  that  no  part  of  the  building  or  grounds  can  escape 
observation,  is  of  great  value  in  assisting  discipline,  break- 
ing up  bad  habits  among  the  scholars,  and  encouraging 
manliness  and  modesty. 

Having  arranged  the  position  of  the  retiring  places  with 
due  regard  to  convenience,  unobtrusiveness,  cleanliness,  and 
privacy,  the  kind  of  apparatus  to  be  employed  is  next  to 
be  decided.  Independent  of  cost,  the  question  whether 
water  closets,  earth  closets,  or  common  privies  should  be 
used  depends  upon  the  amount  of  care  which  can  be  given 
to  them. 

A  good  water  closet  is  undoubtedly  the  best  appliance 
which  we  have,  but  it  involves  an  expense  in  drainage  and 
supply  which  is  seldom  allotted  to  country  schools,  and  the 
risk  of  being  rendered  useless  by  freezing  is  considerable, 
especially  with  the  best  closets.  Those  which  are  called 
"  hoppers  "  can  be  arranged  with  the  trap  below  ground,  out 
of  reach  of  frost,  but  unless  by  good  fortune  there  is  a  large 
and  constant  supply  of  water  these  are  liable  to  become 
serious  nuisances.  In  general,  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
the  stench  from  an  inferior  or  dilapidated  water  closet  is 


SCHOOL  AECHITECTUEE  91 

more  penetrating  even  than  that  of  a  foul  privy,  and  that  a 
privy  vault  can  be  disinfected  much  more  easily  than  a  bad 
drain. 

In  ordinary  cases,  the  best  resource  is  some  form  of  earth 
closet,  which,  when  properly  cared  for,  is  inodorous  and  is 
equally  available  in  all  weathers.  The  form  of  closet  em- 
ployed should  be  especially  designed  so  that  the  scattering 
of  the  earth  over  the  matter  in  the  vault  may  be  done  by  an 
independent  mechanism  from  the  outside.  In  this  way  the 
pulling  of  a  lever  or  turning  a  crank  once  a  day  will  accom- 
plish all  the  requisite  disinfecting,  and  the  weekly  visit  of 
an  intelligent  laborer,  who  should  make  the  rounds  of  the 
schoolhouse  to  fill  up  the  reservoirs  of  dry  earth  and  remove 
the  contents  of  the  vault,  will  be  all  that  is  necessary  to 
maintain  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  buildings.  Further 
details  will  be  found  in  their  proper  place. 

If  the  town  is  unwilling  or  unable  to  do  even  so  much  as 
this  for  its  children,  the  common  privy  vault  must  be  accepted 
as  a  necessity.  In  that  case,  although  it  is  both  practicable 
and  advisable  to  retain  it  in  close  connection  with  the  school- 
room, provision  should  be  made  by  a  short  vestibule,  venti- 
lated by  blind  slats  in  the  sides,  or  some  similar  arrangement, 
for  intercepting  and  sweeping  away  the  emanations  of  the 
closets  before  they  can  enter  the  rooms.  By  this  precaution, 
with  a  small  and  tight  ventilated  vault,  little  or  no  nuisance 
can  reach  the  schoolroom. 

Water  closets  and  privies  are  simple  in  arrangement,  but 
a  few  suggestions  may  be  useful.  They  are,  in  the  country, 
generally  made  far  too  large.  Two  feet  and  a  half  is  all  the 
width  necessary  or  advisable,  and  four  feet  in  depth  is  suf- 
ficient. Never,  under  any  circumstances,  should  there  be 
two  seats  in  the  same  inclosure. 

If  a  special  seat  for  young  children  is  necessary,  it  should 
be  in  an  inclosure  by  itself ;  but  with  seats  made  rather  low, 
15  inches  from  the  floor,  and  the  holes  not  too  large,  all 
children  of  school  age  will  be  sufficiently  well  accommodated. 


92  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  in  rough  districts  to  prevent  stand- 
ing on  the  seats  in  the  boys'  closets.  This  may  be  done  by 
a  wide  board  inclined  from  a  little  above  the  back  of  the 
seat,  forward  to  a  point  nearly  over  the  front  edge,  or  by  a 
strong  bar  20  to  24  inches  above  the  seat. 

The  boys  should  always  be  provided  with  urinals,  which 
may  consist  of  a  trough  of  wood  or  iron,  inclined  toward  the 
outlet,  and  the  requisite,  number  of  board  partitions,  18  to 
20  inches  apart;  but  a  better  arrangement,  because  of  its 
greater  privacy,  consists  in  stalls  divided  by  partitions,  as 
before,  but  each  furnished  with  a  separate  iron  urinal  — 
enameled,  if  the  best  and  most  durable  article  is  desired. 
Corner  urinals  are  in  some  respects  the  best,  and  a  large 
number  may  be  set  in  a  small  space  by  placing  them  on 
opposite  sides  of  a  zigzag  partition.  Whatever  kind  is  used, 
the  lipped  pattern  should  be  chosen.  This  saves  the  drip- 
ping and  consequent  foulness  inevitable  with  troughs,  or 
even  with  urinals  of  the  ordinary  shape. 

The  screens  should  be  6  feet  in  height  or  more.  In  very 
many  delicate  and  nervous  boys  nature  refuses  to  perform 
its  usual  functions,  however  great  the  necessity,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  others  or  under  unaccustomed  circumstances,  and  a 
decent  privacy  in  the  school  conveniences  is  necessary  to  save 
such  from  daily  pain  and  often  more  serious  consequences. 

The  urinals  may  discharge  into  a  single  pipe,  emptying 
into  the  vault,  and  all  woodwork  above  them  should  be  well 
painted  and  sanded.  The  floor  under  them  should  be,  if 
possible,  of  slate,  marble,  or  concrete,  with  a  gutter  formed 
in  it,  draining  into  the  main  waste  pipe.  In  general  as  little 
surface  as  possible  should  be  exposed  to  defilement,  and  that 
little  should  be  non-absorbent,  and  capable  of  being  washed 
clean  with  a  few  pailfuls  of  water. 

The  schoolroom,  vestibules,  wardrobes,  and  closets  will  in 
some  cases  constitute  the  whole  of  the  plan,  but  most  schools 
will  require,  in  addition,  either  a  woodshed  for  storage  of  fuel 
or  a  space  for  cellar  stairs,  if  the  basement  is  used  for  that 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  93 

purpose.  As  a  rule,  unless  furnaces  are  set  in  the  basement, 
it  is  both  better  and  cheaper  to  store  wood,  and  still  more 
coal,  in  a  shed  on  the  ground  level  than  under  the  schoolroom 
floor.  Some  coal,  especially  when  wet,  emits  sulphurous 
vapors  in  considerable  quantity,  and  any  old  wood  pile  fur- 
nishes evidence  that  the  fermentation  of  sap  and  the  decom- 
position of  animals  give  rise  to  vapors  which  are  best  removed 
from  all  possibility  of  contaminating  the  schoolroom  air. 
The  woodshed  may  adjoin  the  boys'  vestibule,  and  by  plac- 
ing it  on  the  northwest  corner  it  will  serve  to  shield  the 
vestibule  on  that  side  from  the  cold  winds. 

The  most  desirable  position  for  the  stove  being  in  the  open 
space  in  front  of  the  pupils  and  at  the  left  of  the  teacher,  and 
this  being  also,  with  the  orientation  here  adopted,  by  far  the 
most  favorable  position  for  warming  the  room  uniformly  in 
cold  weather,  it  will  be  convenient  to  place  the  chimney  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  west  wall  near  the  stove. 

For  an  ordinary  stove  a  flue  8  by  8  inches  is  large  enough, 
but  a  chimney  of  a  single  flue  of  that  size  quickly  bends  over 
and  finally  decays,  so  that  it  must  be  made  8  by  12  or  8  by 
16  inches,  or,  what  is  much  better,  a  ventilating  flue  may  be 
built  in  the  same  stack.  The  cost  of  the  stack  is  not  very 
much  increased,  and  the  advantage  of  having  a  ventilating 
flue  in  such  a  position,  where  the  draught  will  be  quickened 
by  the  heat  of  the  adjoining  smoke  flue,  is  considerable. 
Besides,  the  solidity  as  well  as  the  external  appearance  of 
the  chimney  is  greatly  improved  by  increasing  its  size. 

The  ventilating  flue,  if  smooth  inside,  must  be  at  least  20 
by  20  inches ;  this  is  the  smallest  permissible  sectional  area 
of  a  warmed  shaft,  straight  and  smooth  and  of  considerable 
height,  for  winter  ventilation  of  a  schoolroom  occupied  by 
forty-eight  pupils. 

If  a  smaller  flue  is  used,  additional  wooden  shafts  will 
have  to  be  provided  in  other  parts  of  the  room  to  obtain 
proper  movement  of  the  air,  and  as  the  motion  of  the  air  in 
pipes  diminishes  much  more  rapidly  than  their  sectional  area, 


94  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

the  cost  of  the  wooden  trunks  will  be  found  greater  than  that 
of  the  brickwork  saved,  and  the  effect  much  less. 

A  consideration  which  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  plan- 
ning small  schools  is  the  possibility  that  it  may  become  de- 
sirable to  add  one,  two,  or  more  recitation  or  class  rooms  and 
a  teacher's  room  or  library,  and  an  arrangement  of  ground 
plan  and  elevations  which  will  permit  this  to  be  done  with 
the  least  alteration  of  the  portion  previously  built  will  be 
very  generally  useful. 

In  planning  buildings  of  this  class  it  is  always  necessary 
to  keep  in  mind  the  requirements  which  are  peculiar  to  the 
business  of  a  small  school,  and  to  recognize  the  difference 
between  them  and  the  large  structures  with  four  rooms  on 
a  floor,  where,  for  instance,  it  is  the  rule  to  place  the  axes 
of  the  building  diagonally  with  the  cardinal  points,  in  order 
to  secure  sunshine  in  all  the  rooms,  an  object  which  is  much 
better  attained  in  the  one  or  two  roomed  structure  by  placing 
it  square  with  the  cardinal  points. 

The  dimensions  and,  to  some  extent,  the  shape  of  the 
rooms  will  depend  upon  the  seating.  The  utmost  number  of 
pupils  which  should  be  allowed  to  one  teacher  is  fixed  by  the 
best  authorities  at  48,  and  each  teacher  should  have  a  sepa- 
rate room;  but  there  are  certain  advantages  in  ungraded 
schools  in  having  the  schoolroom  large  enough  to  accommo- 
date a  greater  number. 

In  country  districts  the  attendance  varies  in  character 
according  to  the  season.  In  summer  the  larger  children  are 
occupied  at  home  and  the  school  is  filled  with  small  ones, 
while  in  winter  the  older  boys  and  girls  have  leisure  to  attend 
but  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  keeps  the  little  ones  away  ; 
so  that,  although  the  average  attendance  may  not  be  over  48 
scholars,  there  should  nevertheless  be  an  extra  provision  of 
small  desks  for  summer  and  of  large  ones  for  winter,  increas- 
ing the  number  to  about  60  places  in  all.  Otherwise,  in  the 
cold  season,  stout  children  must  be  crammed  into  the  infants' 
desks,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  year  some  of  the  little 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  95 

ones  will  have  to  be  seated  at  desks  too  large  for  them,  with 
serious  risk  in  both  cases  of  causing  malformation  in  the 
young  and  tender  bodies. 

The  additional  air  space  gained  is  also  of  value,  and,  in 
a  rapidly  growing  neighborhood,  such  a  room  may,  in  case 
of  necessity,  be  temporarily  utilized  to  its  full  capacity  by 
the  employment  of  a  second  teacher  and  the  addition  of  reci- 
tation or  teachers'  rooms,  if  they  do  not  already  exist. 

The  exact  dimensions  of  the  main  room  will  furthermore 
be  dependent  on  the  kind  of  desks  used.  It  should  be 
unnecessary  to  say  that  the  proper  way  to  plan  a  building 
of  this  sort  is  to  determine  the  number  and  size  of  desks 
and  the  width  of  aisles  and  platform  first  of  all,  then  to  con- 
struct the  walls  to  inclose  just  the  space  desired  and  no 
more  ;  not,  as  sometimes  occurs,  to  fix  upon  some  haphazard 
dimensions  for  the  room,  and  when  it  is  ready  cram  the  desks 
in  somehow,  the  result  being  that  the  room  presents  in  one 
place  large  useless  spaces,  and,  in  another,  aisles  so  narrow 
that  the  children  can  only  squeeze  through  them  sideways. 

Taking  things  as  they  are,  not  as  they  perhaps  ought  to 
be,  the  majority  of  ungraded  schools  are  likely  to  use  double 
desks,  and  the  plan  will  be  first  laid  out  for  such,  leaving 
till  later  the  arrangement  to  suit  the  single  desk  seating. 

The  dimensions  of  double  desks  vary  according  to  the 
maker,  and  the  utmost  economy  of  floor  space  will  be  secured 
by  determining  upon  the  kind  to  be  used  before  commencing 
the  construction  of  the  building. 

The  folding  seat  desks,  which  are  desirable,  especially  for 
young  children  (because  they  allow  the  pupils  to  stand  up- 
right in  their  places,  turn  the  seats  back,  and  in  that  position 
take  part  in  various  calisthenic  or  other  exercises),  occupy 
a  little  more  room  from  front  to  rear  than  the  old  kind,  but 
are  made  somewhat  shorter,  the  average  length  being  40 
inches  for  the  double  seat,  and  the  floor  space  from  back  to 
back  30  inches.  The  aisles  between  the  rows  of  double  desks 
should  be  two  feet  wide. 


96  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

The  teacher's  platform,  or  a  space  for  the  desk  if  a  plat- 
form is  not  used,  will  be  5  feet  wide,  and  3  feet,  at  least, 
must  intervene  between  the  front  of  the  platform  and  the 
front  row  of  desks.  Three  and  a  half,  or,  better,  four  feet 
should  be  allowed  between  the  rear  seats  and  the  wall,  and 
aisles  next  the  side  walls  are  necessary,  3-j-  feet  wide  if  black- 
boards are  to  be  placed  there,  or  3  feet  if  they  are  dispensed 
with. 

There  should  not  be  more  than  four  rows  of  double  desks. 
The  advantage  of  shortening  the  schoolroom  by  increasing 
the  width  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  annoyance  to 
the  teacher  of  constantly  turning  the  head  in  trying  to  take 
in  a  wide  angle  of  vision. 

Three  rows  of  desks  would  give  a  room  of  better  form 
still  for  seeing,  hearing,  and  economical  construction,  but  the 
width  of  such  a  room,  amounting  to  20  feet  only  inside  the 
finished  walls,  would  not  be  sufficient  to  allow  the  drawing 
out  of  large  classes  in  front  or  rear  of  the  desks.  With 
four  rows,  therefore,  as  a  standard,  the  desks,  being  40  inches 
long,  will  require  13  feet  4  inches ;  three  2-foot  aisles  be- 
tween them  will  add  6  feet ;  and  the  two  side  aisles,  each 
3J  feet  wide,  7  more ;  making  the  total  width  of  the  room, 
inside  the  finished  walls,  26  feet  4  inches. 

For  the  depth,  the  teacher's  platform  will  take  5  feet ;  the 
front  aisle,  3  more ;  eight  desks,  at  2-J  feet  each,  will  add  20 
feet ;  and  the  rear  aisle,  which  must  be  4  feet  if  there  is  any 
possibility  of  adding  recitation  rooms  on  that  end,  brings  the 
total  to  32  feet,  and  gives  seating  capacity  for  64  pupils  of 
all  ages. 

If  it  is  decided  to  use  single  desks,  which  are  rapidly 
superseding  double  ones  in  the  more  intelligent  communities, 
the  dimensions  of  the  room  will  with  advantage  and  economy 
be  somewhat  different.  The  usual  width  for  aisles  between 
single  desks  is  about  18  inches ;  six  rows  of  desks,  there- 
fore, at  two  feet  each,  with  five  aisles,  at  1-J-  feet,  will  take 
feet ;  two  side  aisles  will,  as  before,  add  7  feet,  making 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  97 

26 1-  feet.  To  accommodate  60  pupils,  there  will  be  ten 
desks  in  each  row,  at  2|-  feet  of  floor  space  for  each,  which, 
with  8  feet  in  front  and  4  in  rear,  gives  37  feet  for  the 
depth  of  the  room. 

The  height  of  the  ceiling  should  not  be  less  than  12  or 
more  than  14  feet.  Thirteen  feet  is  quite  sufficient  for  any 
schoolroom ;  and  although  the  volume  of  air  contained  in  a 
lofty  room  is  larger,  a  comparatively  low  one  is  more  easily 
ventilated  by  flues  and  the  air  more  quickly  changed  by 
opening  the  windows,  and  the  acoustic  quality  of  a  room  so 
nearly  square  as  a  schoolroom  must  be  deteriorates  with 
great  rapidity  as  the  height  of  the  ceiling  passes  beyond  12 
feet. 

Lower  posts  still  would  be  admissible  in  small  rooms 
for  24  to  40  pupils,  if  the  ceiling  were  carried  up  with  the 
roof  by  plastering  on  the  rafters  and  collar  beams,  but  collar 
beams  are  hardly  practicable  in  roofs  of  25  feet  span. 

The  window  sills  will  be  4  feet  above  the  floor,  and 
the  heads  should  extend  close  up  to  the  plate,  which  will 
allow  about  5  inches  for  architrave. 

A  wainscoting  should  be  carried  around  the  room,  or,  at 
least,  across  the  blackboard  ends.  Under  the  blackboards 
it  should  be  2  feet  4  inches  high.  This  will  be  high  enough 
to  protect  the  dresses  of  the  children  from  the  chalk,  and 
will  not  bring  the  blackboards  too  high  for  convenient  use. 
Usually  the  cap  of  the  wainscot  is  formed  of  a  gutter-shaped 
molding  to  catch  the  chalk  dust  and  hold  crayons ;  but  an 
ingenious  carpenter  can  easily  make  a  suitable  cap  by  bevel- 
ing a  square  piece  of  wood  inwards.  ' 

The  blackboards  should  extend  4^  to  5  feet  above  the 
wainscot,  bringing  the  top  edge  6J  to  7  feet  above  the  floor. 
One  large  one  should  occupy  the  whole  extent  of  the  wall 
behind  the  teacher's  platform,  and  a  similar  one  the  oppo- 
site end  wall,  while  smaller  ones  or  maps  may  be  placed 
beside  the  groups  of  windows.  Certain  simple  diagrams, 
showing  graphically  the  areas  of  different  countries  and 

SCII.  IXT.  &  DUT. 7 


98  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

their  productions,  have  been  made,  which  will  be  very  suit- 
able for  such  places.  A  small  molding  or  batten  may  run 
along  the  top  of  the  blackboard  as  a  frame. 

The  teacher's  platform  may  be  from  6  to  8  feet  long  and 
about  8  inches  high.  Some  teachers  prefer  to  dispense  with 
it  altogether,  thinking  that  they  can  make  their  work  more 
effective  by  moving  about  continually  on  a  level  with  their 
scholars  instead  of  overlooking  them  quietly ;  but  such 
cases  are  exceptional. 

The  stove,  if  the  room  is  to  be  warmed  in  that  way, 
should  stand  in  the  vacant  northwest  corner  of  the  room ; 
and,  if  furnace  heat  is  employed,  the  furnace  should  stand 
nearly  under  the  same  corner,  and  registers  should  be  placed 
in  each  angle.  In  this  way  the  delivery  of  hot  air  will  be 
equal  at  each  register ;  whereas,  if  the  furnace  were  set  in 
the  center  of  the  basement,  the  delivery  in  cold  weather 
would  be  mostly  on  the  south  side  of  the  house,  the  greater 
weight  of  air  in  the  northern  half  of  the  room,  chilled  by 
the  impact  of  the  cold  wind,  being  sufficient  to  determine 
the  current  away  from  that  side. 

The  recitation  rooms  may  be  10  by  15  feet,  or  even 
smaller.  Their  furnishing  will  consist  of  benches  or  spe- 
cially designed  seats  around  the  wall,  and  a  small  desk  and 
a  chair  for  the  teacher.  Blackboards  should  line  the  walls. 

For  a  teacher's  room,  almost  anything,  even  a  closet,  is 
better  than  no  such  room  at  all.  Six  feet  by  ten  is  large 
enough  to  be  of  great  use.  Book  shelves,  hooks  for  hanging 
clothes,  or,  better,  a  small  press,  and  a  few  cupboards,  with 
two  chairs  and  a  snlall  table,  complete  its  furnishing. 
Neither  teacher's  room  nor  recitation  rooms  need  be  so 
high  studded  as  the  schoolroom. 

Wardrobes  may  be  12  inches  deep,  if  there  is  wall  space 
enough ;  if  not,  by  making  them  18  inches  deep  hooks  may 
be  put  on  the  inside  of  the  doors,  and  room  thus  economized. 
The  hooks  should  be  triple,  of  malleable  or  wrought  iron,  if 
the  cost  is  not  too  great,  and  screwed  to  strips  in  two  rows, 


SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  99 

one  row  being  put  6  feet  or  so  from  the  floor  for  the  large 
scholars,  and  the  other  not  over  4  or  4£  feet  for  the  younger 
ones.  The  hooks  should  be  8  inches  apart  in  each  row,  and 
those  in  one  row  should  be  vertically  over  the  middle  of 
the  space  between  those  in  the  other.  Ten  feet  in  length 
with  double  strips  will  give  30  hooks. 

Each  hook  should  be  numbered  and  one  allotted  to  each 
child.  Six  inches  over  the  top  row  of  hooks  should  be  a 
shelf,  and  the  remaining  space  to  the  ceiling  may  be  occu- 
pied with  additional  shelving. 

For  overshoes,  the  lower  part  of  the  wardrobe  is,  in  the 
better  schools,  occupied  with  ranges  of  pigeonholes  4  or  5 
inches  square.  Five  inches  square,  or  4  inches  by  6,  is  not 
too  much  in  country  districts  at  the  north,  where  rubber 
boots  need  to  be  accommodated,  and,  if  the  case  is  made 
of  half-inch  stock,  a  wardrobe  10  feet  long  will  give  room 
for  30  boxes,  numbered  like  the  hooks,  in  two  rows,  with  a 
cupboard  in  addition  where  lunch  pails  may  be  stowed 
away.  A  little  ingenuity  only  is  needed  to  secure  the 
requisite  accommodation  in  very  limited  spaces. 

The  whole  should  be  shut  in  by  strong  doors,  which  may 
fasten  with  a  slip  bolt,  or,  if  preferred,  by  a  lock,  the  key  of 
which  will  be  retained  by  the  teacher  during  school  hours. 
Holes  bored  in  walls  and  doors  will  give  ventilation.  If  it 
is  possible  to  turn  a  current  of  warm  air  from  the  furnace 
in  among  the  clothes  to  dry  them  in  wet  weather  the  health 
of  the  children  will  be  thereby  promoted. 

A  few  details  of  general  planning  may  be  best  inserted 
here,  and  will  serve  to  close  the  subject  of  arrangement. 

All  the  doors  from  the  interior  of  the  schoolroom  to  the 
exterior  air  should  open  outward.  This  precaution,  which 
the  law  makes  compulsory  in  city  schoolhouses,  should  not 
be  neglected  in  the  smallest  buildings.  It  is  necessary,  in 
consequence  of  this  arrangement,  to  have  a  landing  at  the 
top  of  the  outside  steps  at  least  4  feet  wide,  so  that  a  child 
standing  on  the  top  step  when  the  door  is  suddenly  thrown 


100  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND   DUTIES 

open  from  the  inside  may  have  room  to  draw  back  without 
falling  down  the  steps. 

Double  doors  are  often  useful  in  large  schools,  but,  if  used, 
should  be  not  less  than  5  feet  in  width.  Other  doors  may 
be  3  feet  wide,  and,  in  general,  6  feet  8  inches  to  7  feet  is 
sufficient  height.  It  is  a  common  mistake  to  have  doors  too 
high.  If  ventilation  is  provided  for  independently  of  them, 
as  it  always  should  be,  the  larger  they  are  the  greater  will 
be  the  volume  of  cold  air  admitted  when  they  are  opened 
and  the  more  danger  there  will  be  that  they  will  warp  and 
admit  dangerous  draughts  even  when  closed.  Fanlights  over 
them,  however,  are  useful  in  warm  weather. 

Stairs  and  steps  of  all  kinds  should  be  very  low  and  easy 
for  children's  use.  Five  inches  in  height  are  enough  for 
each  riser,  and  outside  steps  may  have  treads  12  inches  wide 
with  advantage. 

Arrangements  in  City  Schools.  —  Mr.  Clark's  foregoing 
statement  of  principles  of  school  architecture  relates  specif- 
ically to  the  smaller  schools  of  country  districts,  and  he  has 
made  a  careful  study  of  their  requirements.  The  same  prin- 
ciples apply  generally,  however,  to  city  schools  as  well. 

In  cities  there  has  been  too  little  attention  paid  to  the 
matter  of  school  grounds.  Unless  these  are  purchased  early 
in  a  rapidly  growing  city,  it  will  soon  be  found  that  the  cost 
of  the  ground  is  an  obstacle  to  the  purchase  of  a  campus  of 
generous  dimensions.  This  fact  should  be  carefully  consid- 
ered by  school  boards,  who  should  have  an  eye  to  the  future 
needs  of  the  schools. 

"  For  aspect,"  says  Mr.  Clark,  "  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
say  that  a  gentle  inclination  of  the  ground  toward  the  south, 
is  especially  desirable  ;  the  charm  of  land  so  situated  is  well 
fixed  in  the  minds  of  most  persons.  Next  to  this,  the  play- 
ground may  slope  east  or  west;  not  north,  if  it  can  be 
avoided.  After  these  considerations  have  been  weighed,  if 
the  schoolhouse  plot  still  offers  a  choice  of  several  sites,  all 


SCHOOL  AECHITECTUEE  101 

equally  well  fulfilling  the  requirements  we  have  noted,  the 
further  selection  between  the  different  situations  may  be 
allowed  to  depend  upon  their  relative  position  with  regard 
to  the  street. 

"  While  no  point  of  healthf ulness  or  convenience  for  the 
pupils  should  be  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  pleasing  the  eyes 
of  the  loiterers  in  the  streets,  it  is  generally  found  impossi- 
ble to  keep  a  well-used  playground  as  neat  and  trim  as  a 
lawn,  and  for  this  reason  it  will  be  better  with  small  build- 
ings, other  things  being  equal,  to  set  the  schoolhouse  between 
the  street  and  the  center  of  the  plot,  reserving  the  portion 
behind  it  for  playgrounds,  while  the  smaller  space  in  front 
may  be  ornamented  with  flowers  and  kept  neat  and  attrac- 
tive. The  entrances  should  be  so  placed  that,  without  alter- 
ing the  aspect  of  the  schoolroom  itself,  both  of  them  may  be 
visible  from  the  street.  Otherwise  than  this,  the  position 
of  the  building  and  the  direction  of  the  street  have  no  neces- 
sary relation  to  each  other." 

Except  in  the  very  large  and  crowded  cities,  the  vast 
schoolhouses  which  were  the  pride  of  an  earlier  decade  are 
going  out  of  fashion.  Generally,  even  in  large  cities,  a 
building  of  eight  schoolrooms  (arranged  on  two  floors)  with 
a  principal's  office  and  the  usual  adjuncts  of  smaller  apart- 
ments, is  large  enough.  A  building  of  this  size  may  be 
made  almost  ideal  in  its  proportions  and  appointments. 

Where  a  new  school  building  is  to  be  constructed,  it  is 
of  the  highest  importance  that  the  services  of  a  competent 
architect  be  secured,  in  order  that  the  structure  may  possess 
a  permanent  value.  There  is  no  economy  in  erecting  old- 
styled  structures  wanting  in  modern  appliances  and  conven- 
iences. The  best  is  really  the  cheapest,  and  an  architect 
who  has  made  the  subject  his  special  study  will  know  what 
is  best  for  the  purpose. 

An  eight-room  school  building  of  modern  design  is  gener- 
ally rectangular  in  form,  with  a  straight  hall  running  through 
the  center,  into  which  open  two  schoolrooms  on  each  side. 


102  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

The  stairs  ascend  midway  in  the  hall.  The  upper  hall  is 
nearly  square.  A  piano  placed  in  the  center  of  the  upper 
hall  will  be  advantageously  located  for  supplying  marching 
music,  as  the  pupils  pass  in  and  out  of  the  rooms. 

Halls  with  turns  and  corners,  dark  halls,  halls  made  to  do 
service  as  cloakrooms,  narrow  and  crowded  halls,  noisy  halls, 
dirty  halls,  inconvenient  halls,  have  had  their  day.  Broad, 
light,  straight,  clean,  and  pleasant  halls  are  now  required. 
The  doors  should  be  made  to  swing  outward,  as  well  as  in- 
ward, to  avoid  the  danger  of  a  crowd  shut  in  by  a  panic  in 
case  of  danger. 

From  the  halls  the  principal  should  be  able  to  view  the 
rooms  at  all  times.  There  should  be  sash  doors  opening 
into  the  schoolrooms.  Between  the  schoolrooms  on  either 
side  should  be  commodious  cloakrooms  for  girls  and  boys, 
respectively.  A  separate  closet  or  wardrobe  for  the  use  of 
the  teacher  should  be  provided,  opening  from  the  school- 
room. In  the  cloakrooms  should  be  the  chimney  "shoul- 
ders," which  would  otherwise  mar  the  beauty  of  the 
schoolrooms. 

The  upper  hall  need  not  extend  through  the  building. 
The  ends  may  be  cut  off  by  partitions  (constructed  largely 
of  glass,  to  permit  the  passage  of  light  from  without).  The 
chambers  thus  formed  should  be  suitably  furnished  for  the 
private  use  of  teachers,  for  reading,  study,  or  consultation 
at  times  of  intermission.  Often  children  become  ill  in 
school,  and  require  a  quiet,  retired  room  for  immediate  use. 
Accidents  occur,  and  home  care  and  appliances  are  instantly 
needed.  For  such  cases  —  always  liable  to  occur,  and  with- 
out warning  —  the  wise  school  board  and  the  teacher  should 
prepare. 

In  addition  to  the  cloakrooms,  there  should  be  provided, 
on  the  lower  floor,  apartments  for  toilet  use  by  the  boys  and 
girls,  respectively.  There  should  be,  at  least,  places  for 
bathing  the  faces  and  hands,  and  supplied  with  mirrors  and 
other  articles  of  toilet  use. 


SCHOOL  ABCHITECTUEE  103 

The  principal's  office,  on  the  lower  floor,  should  be  gener- 
ously supplied  with  storage  closets  of  various  kinds,  book- 
cases, cabinets  for  apparatus,  etc.  It  is  better  to  have  these 
made  permanently  in  the  building  than  to  have  them  in  the 
form  of  heavy,  clumsy  articles  of  furniture. 

The  furnace  for  steam  heat  should  always  be  contained 
in   a  small  building   separate  from  the  main  edifice,  and 
never  in  the  basement.     What  parent  desires  his  child  to  beT 
seated  over  a  hot  boiler,  and  liable  to  injury  from  an  explo-) 
sion,  if  it  should  occur  ? 

In  every  item  of  the  construction, 'finishing,  and  furnish- 
ing of  the  building,  thoughtful  care  should  be  exercised. 
Before  each  of  the  outer  doorways  should  be  a  scraper, 
made  of  narrow,  thin  boards  turned  on  edge,  separated  by 
small  blocks  of  wood,  and  strung  upon  horizontal  iron  rods, 
passing  through  auger  holes.  This  should  be  so  placed  that 
it  can  be  easily  removed,  so  as  to  recover  any  article  that 
may  be  dropped  between  the  boards,  or  to  clean  away  the 
scrapings  of  dirt  from  the  shoes  of  the  person  using  it. 

The  clock  shelves  should  be  so  placed  that  the  time  can 
be  seen  readily  from  the  hall,  and  compared  with  that  of 
the  principal's  watch  or  with  a  regulator  in  the  hall. 

Teachers  and  school  officers  should  make  use  of  opportu- 
nities which  may  occur  for  visiting  the  schoolhouses  of 
different  cities  and  towns  —  especially  the  newer  build- 
ings—  and  should  observe  carefully  the  details  of  their 
construction  and  arrangement.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  nothing  is  too  small  for  consideration  which  has  a  bear- 
ing upon  the  convenience  and  comfort  of  so  many  people  as 
make  use  of  a  school  building. 

Everything,  from  the  adjustment  of  the  smallest  cabinet 
latch  to  the  arrangement  of  the  largest  rooms,  is  worthy  of 
intelligent  consideration.  Only  by  constant  observation  and 
comparison  of  buildings  in  little  things,  by  the  teachers 
throughout  the  country,  can  we  expect  to  achieve  the  high- 
est success  in  the  development  of  school  architecture. 


104  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

No  false  modesty  should  deter  the  teacher  from  consider- 
ing in  detail  the  plans  and  furnishings  of  toilet  and  retiring 
rooms  for  the  children.  Much  better  would  it  have  been 
had  these  been  the  subjects  of  more  intelligent  considera- 
tion and  discussion  in  years  gone  by.  In  the  estimate  of  a 
school  by  a  practical  educator  many  things  which  teachers 
sometimes  note  but  little,  if  at  all,  often  enter  very  largely 
into  the  judgment  of  the  observer. 

There  are  many  old  schoolhouses  now  in  use  which  vio- 
late in  their  construction  nearly  all  the  canons  of  modern 
school  architecture.  Many  of  these  old  schoolhouses  will 
stand  for  years  to  come.  It  is  often  the  case  that  they  can 
be  greatly  improved  by  inexpensive  alterations  —  by  changes 
in  certain  windows  and  doors,  by  the  introduction  of  appli- 
ances for  heating,  ventilation,  etc. 

Sometimes  a  little  artistic  effect  produced  upon  the  exte- 
rior will  greatly  improve  the  appearance  of  an  old  building. 
Unsightly,  weather-beaten  cupolas  can  be  made  to  assume 
more  tasteful  forms,  or  can  be  removed  altogether.  Old 
brick  walls  can  be  made  to  appear  almost  handsome,  if 
painted  a  rich  dark  red  color,  with  narrow  pencilings  of 
black. 

The  older  the  building,  the  greater  is  its  need  for  an 
annual  cleansing  and  renovation  throughout.  This  is  as 
necessary  as  the  periodic  house  cleaning  in  a  home.  Let 
the  teacher  and  the  school  officer,  acting  in  concert,  evolve 
intelligent  plans  for  the  expenditure  of  the  available  funds  in 
securing  for  the  children  the  benefits  of  schoolhouses  intelli- 
gently planned,  generously  furnished,  and  kept  always  in 
good  repair. 


CHAPTER   V 
SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

Ventilation  and  Heating.  —  All  who  have  read  the  old-time 
school  novel  of  Locke  Amsden  will  recall  its  forcible  delinea- 
tion of  the  unventilated  schoolroom,  and  the  almost  fatal 
effects  of  foul  air  upon  the  schoolmaster's  pupils. 

In  a  later  novel  of  graded  school  life,  Roderick  Hume, 
there  is  an  amusing  account  of  the  principal's  attempt  to 
elucidate  the  subject  of  ventilation  upon  the  occasion  of  a 
public  gathering,  and  of  an  error  from  which  he  was  rescued 
by  the  timely  assistance  of  one  of  the  teachers.  This  inci- 
dent of  Bardeen's  clever  story  is  related  as  follows : 

"  To  enforce  this  last  topic,  he  undertook  to  show  them 
how  soon  the  audience  in  the  schoolroom  would  die  if  the 
ingress  of  fresh  air  were  suddenly  cut  off.  He  had  prepared 
the  measurement  of  the  room  and  the  amount  of  air  breathed 
per  hour  by  each  individual ;  so  he  put  these  figures  upon 
the  board,  and  proceeded  to  calculate  how  long  it  would  take 
to  convert  all  the  oxygen  present  into  carbonic  acid.  With 
customary  self-reliance  he  had  omitted  the  precaution  to 
work  the  problem  out  beforehand,  and  he  could  not  see  why 
it  was  that,  instead  of  an  hour  or  two,  it  would  take  weeks 
to  approximately  exhaust  the  oxygen.  He  began  to  floun- 
der, the  people  present  to  giggle,  and  the  scholars  to  wonder 
what  could  be  the  trouble.  Just  then  Miss  Lowe  slipped 
along  the  desk,  under  his  eye,  a  piece  of  paper  on  which 
was  written : 

Air  1  per  cent  CO*  will  not  support  life. 
105 


106  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

"No  one  else  had  seen  the  motion,  but  Roderick  caught 
the  hint  as  a  drowning  man  clutches  at  a  straw. 

" '  I  see  that  you  smile/  he  said,  '  and  well  you  may.  It 
is  by  this  sort  of  reasoning  that  builders  deceive  themselves 
and  murder  their  occupants.  If  it  were  true,  as  I  have 
assumed,  that  air  can  be  breathed  until  all  the  oxygen  is 
converted  into  carbonic  acid,  the  danger  of  ill  ventilation 
would  be  comparatively  small.  But  what  is  the  fact  ?  One 
half  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid  produces,  headache,  1  per  cent 
faintness,  l-i-  per  cent  numbness,  and  2  per  cent  death. 
These  are  the  figures  for  you  and  for  your  children  to  re- 
member, and  I  implore  you  never  to  reason  that  air  can  be 
breathed  over  and  over  till  all  its  oxygen  is  exhausted.7 

"  The  people  remarked,  as  they  left  the  schoolroom,  that 
Roderick  was  an  orator  as  well  as  a  scholar.  By  no  other 
way  than  by  pretending  for  the  moment  to  be  himself  misled 
could  he  so  forcibly  have  impressed  upon  them  the  minute 
proportion  of  carbonic  acid  which  makes  the  air  deadly." 

So  much  has  been  written  concerning  the  necessity  for 
adequate  ventilation  of  schoolrooms,  that  it  is  unnecessary 
here  to  argue  the  case. 

"For  schoolrooms,"  says  Dr.  C.  Oilman  Currier,  in  his 
recent  work  on  Practical  Hygiene,  "the  lowest  standard 
amount  of  fresh  air  to  be  supplied  every  hour  for  each 
pupil  is  set  at  1800  feet.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  30  cubic 
feet  per  minute.  Some  schools  receive  twice  this  amount 
of  fresh  air  for  each  scholar.  A  number  of  schools  have  45 
cubic  feet  a  minute  allowed  for  every  child  that  the  room 
can  accommodate.  Unfortunately,  very  many  schools  are 
exceedingly  deficient  in  this  respect.  Where  the  pupils  are 
not  children,  45  cubic  feet  per  minute  ought  to  be  the  lowest 
amount  supplied  for  each  individual." 

It  must  be  remembered  that  children  are  far  more  suscep- 
tible than  adults  to  injury  from  atmospheric  poisons ;  and 
that  such  injury  often  acts  slowly  and  almost  imperceptibly 
upon  the  system,  its  cumulative  effects  being  exhibited  after 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  107 

a  considerable  period  of  time,  and  when  it  is  too  late  to 
repair  the  harm  that  has  been  done  to  their  systems. 

Among  the  appliances  of  the  present  time  to  secure  the 
proper  ventilation  of  schoolrooms  are  improved  systems  of 
heating,  by  means  of  which  warm,  fresh  air  is  admitted  to 
the  schoolroom,  and  shafts  for  carrying  off  the  impure  air. 
However  beneficial  these  appliances  may  be,  they  must  not 
be  relied  upon  exclusively. 

"  Xothing,"  says  T.  M.  Clark,  "  can  take  the  place  of  aera- 
tion by  means  of  open  windows.  Artificial  ventilation, 
though  required  for  changing  the  air  when  the  windows  are 
necessarily  closed,  is  insufficient,  even  under  the  best  of  cir- 
cumstances, unless  the  room  is  from  time  to  time  thoroughly 
refreshed  and  purified  by  the  sweep  of  the  free  winds  through 
all  its  windows  widely  opened. 

"  Such  an  atmospheric  washing  should  be  secured  three  or 
four  times  daily  in  all  weathers ;  at  recess,  particularly,  it 
should  be  insisted  on,  banishing  teachers  and  pupils  from 
the  room  meanwhile,  if  necessary.  They  will  more  than 
make  up  in  the  brightness  of  the  remaining  hours  for  the 
time  they  must  lose.  Immediately  after  school,  morning 
and  afternoon,  the  process  should  be  repeated  for  a  longer 
time ;  and  just  before  school,  also,  if  the  ?oom  can  be  warmed 
again  quickly  enough. 

"Xo  fixed  transom  lights  or  immovable  arched  heads 
should  be  permitted  to  exist  over  the  windows,  subtracting 
from  the  most  useful  portion  of  the  opening.  The  large,  heavy 
sashes  common  in  the  more  pretentious  buildings  should  be 
rehung  with  rawhide  cord  or  copper  chain,  if  necessary,  and 
pulleys  with  friction  rollers,  balanced  so  as  to  move  with  a 
touch;  while  in  new  buildings  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
sashes  should  be  carefully  kept  down,  no  sash  being  over  3 
feet  wide  or  1J  inches  thick.  Eyes  must  be  fixed  to  the 
upper  sashes,  and  a  pole  and  hook  furnished  to  handle  them 
with,  or,  still  better,  cords  fastened  to  each  sash  hanging 
within  easy  reach,  and  pulleys  to  raise  or  lower  them  at  ~J 


108  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND   DUTIES 

will ;  and  the  window  frames  must  be  perfectly  made,  with, 
cherry  beads,  and  looked  after  from  time  to  time  to  see  that 
all  is  in  working  order. 

"Besides  the  general  airings  in  which  all  the  windows  are 
thrown  wide  open,  it  is  possible  and  very  desirable  during 
three  fourths  of  the  year  to  keep  some  of  them  partly  open. 
If  they  extend  to  the  ceiling,  the  upper  part,  at  least,  of  the 
south  windows,  in  rooms  properly  supplied  with  other  fresh 
air  inlets,  may  be  pretty  widely  opened  in  the  coldest 
weather  without  causing  a  noticeable  draught.  Such  open- 
ings, if  on  the  leeward  side,  often  interfere  with  the  action 
of  extraction  shafts,  by  drawing  to  themselves  the  current 
of  escaping  air ;  but  this  is  of  no  importance  in  the  build- 
ings we  are  considering. 

"There  are  times,  however,  when  windows  cannot  be 
opened,  and  means  must  be  provided  for  insuring  the  with- 
drawal of  the  respired  air  from  the  room  in  some  other  way." 
Concerning  the  use  of  air  shafts  for  ventilating  schoolrooms 
this  architectural  critic  comments  upon  a  very  common  mis- 
understanding of  their  powers  and  properties : 

"  Nothing  is  more  common  or  more  absurd,"  says  he,  "  than 
to  see  rough  ventilation  flues,  4  by  8  inches,  built  in  walls 
without  any  provision  for  heating  them,  under  the  supposi- 
tion that  they  will '  draw ' ;  or  to  see  tiny  pipes,  from  the  foul- 
est places,  introduced  into  chimneys  which  are  cold  half  the 
time,  in  the  expectation  that  the  '  forced  draught/  which  is 
imagined  to  exist  there,  will  suck  up  and  carry  off  deleteri- 
ous vapor  as  fast  as  a  square  yard  of  filth  can  generate  it. 

"  All  talk  of  '  forced  ventilation '  by  means  of  a  shaft  with- 
out fans  or  steam  jets  is  misleading.  The  action  of  every 
such  shaft  or  chimney,  warmed  or  not,  is  precisely  anal- 
ogous to  the  movement  of  two  boys  balanced  on  a  see-saw. 
If  their  weight  is  equal,  neither  moves ;  if  one  is  slightly 
heavier,  he  descends  and  the  other  ascends,  but  his  motion 
would  not  be  fairly  described  by  saying  that  he  was  '  forced 
into  the  air/ 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  109 

"  So  with  ventilating  shafts ;  the  column  of  air  in  them  is 
balanced  against  a  column  of  the  same  size  and  height  out- 
side of  them.  If  the  outer  air  is  cold  and  that  in  the  shaft 
warm,  either  from  artificial  heat  or  by  communicating  with 
a  warm  room,  the  latter  column  will  be  slightly  lighter,  be- 
cause, being  expanded,  a  given  volume  contains  less  weight. 
This  difference  of  weight,  if  there  is  not  too  much  friction 
in  the  chimney  or  elsewhere  to  be  overcome,  will  incline  the 
balance,  and  the  air  in  the  chimney  will  rise,  cold  air  de- 
scending to  take  its  place.  The  actual  difference  of  weight 
between  the  column  of  air  in  a  chimney  12  inches  square 
and  30  feet  high  at  a  temperature  of  100°  F.  and  an  equiva- 
lent volume  at  32°  F.  would  be  5  ounces ;  and  this,  deduct- 
ing the  friction  of  both  the  ascending  and  descending 
currents,  will  be  the  measure  of  the  ascensive  force  of  the 
air  in  the  shaft. 

'•'Without  artificial  heat,  the  ascensive  power  is  much 
less  —  infinitesimal,  often;  and  in  summer  the  current  in  a 
chimney  is  at  least  half  the  time  reversed,  the  evaporation 
of  the  hygroinetric  dampness  of  the  masonry  cooling  the 
air  within  it  below  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere. 

"  This  force,  feeble  though  it  be,  is  all  we  have  to  depend 
upon,  and  it  need  hardly  be  said  that  all  obstructions  to  its 
action  must  be  avoided.  The  common  cause  of  defective  ac- 
tion is  insufficient  fresh  air  supply.  The  movement  of  the 
balance  depends  wholly  on  the  freedom  of  action  of  both  its 
sides,  and  the  heated  column  has  no  force  to  spare  for  suck- 
ing in  cold  air  through  inadequate  openings  to  supply  the 
place  which  it  leaves ;  still  less  has  it  the  power  of  going  off 
by  itself,  leaving  a  vacuum  behind ;  unless  the  cold  air  is 
ready  in  equal  measure  to  supply  its  place,  the  warmer  col- 
umn will  wait  for  it  —  in  other  words,  stagnate  —  and  there 
will  be  no  draught.  This  is  the  condition  of  most  existing 
ventilation  flues  nine  tenths  of  the  year,  as  is  easily  shown 
by  holding  a  light  handkerchief  before  them. 


110  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

"  Vice  versa,  if  fresh  air  is  to  be  introduced  into  a  room, 
provision  must  be  made  for  the  escape  of  foul  air.  The 
experiment  of  attempting  to  blow  into  the  mouth  of  a  bottle 
will  impress  this  fact  upon  the  mind,  and  will  show  why  it 
is  that  many  rooms  supplied  with  hot  air  from  furnaces  can- 
not be  warmed  until  a  window  or  other  outlet  is  opened, 
allowing  the  pent-up  atmosphere  to  escape  and  the  fresh 
supply  to  enter  in  its  place.  In  order,  then,  that  there 
may  be  a  flow  of  air  through  the  room,  not  only  must  the 
withdrawing  shaft  be  large,  straight,  and  smooth,  that  the 
inevitable  friction  of  the  air  upon  its  walls  may  not  materi- 
ally obstruct  the  outward  flow,  but  the  inlet  openings  must 
be  also  ample  and  unobstructed,  any  hindrance  to  the  inward 
flow  being  equally  a  check  to  the  outward  current. 

"  To  use  a  homely  illustration,  the  room  to  be  ventilated 
may  be  imagined  to  be  traversed  by  the  lower  end  of  a  huge 
atmospheric  roller  towel.  It  makes  no  difference  whether 
we  pull  one  side  down  or  the  other  side  up  to  secure  a 
movement ;  but  if  the  towel  is  obstructed  in  any  part  of  its 
course  the  whole  is  brought  to  a  standstill.  Eecollecting 
also  that  to  pull  down  a  common  roller  towel  actually  takes 
more  power  than  the  whole  force  ordinarily  available  for 
moving  the  entire  atmosphere  of  a  large  room,  the  total 
ascensive  power  of  the  usual  ventilating  shaft  seldom  ex- 
ceeding one  or  two  ounces,  the  imperative  necessity  for 
avoiding  friction  will  be  evident. 

"The  principal  means  to  this  end  is  the  enlargement  of 
the  shafts,  the  friction  increasing  only  directly  as  the  perim- 
eter, while  the  capacity  increases  as  its  square.  For  this 
reason,  a  round  shaft  two  feet  in  diameter  will  carry  off 
about  as  much  air  as  six  shafts  each  one  foot  in  diameter, 
and  in  square  pipes  the  difference  is  still  greater.  Besides 
being  large,  the  shaft  must  be  straight,  an  elbow  consti- 
tuting a  very  serious  obstruction;  and  it  must  be  round 
or  square,  and  as  smooth  as  possible,  to  lessen  the  friction 
against  its  walls." 


SCHOOL   HYGIENE  111 

The  difficulties  of  ventilating  schoolrooms  are  enhanced 
when  they  are  overcrowded.  It  is  said  by  high  authority 
that  the  smallest  room  space  to  be  allotted  to  an  adult  in  an 
ordinary  room  where  there  are  not  exceptional  provisions  to 
secure  the  ventilation  should  be  not  less  than  half  the  1800 
cubic  feet  of  air  needed  every  hour.  That  is  to  say,  an  adult 
person  requires  900  cubic  feet  of  room  space. 

The  smallest  schoolroom  space  provided  for  each  child, 
we  are  told,  ought  to  be  250  cubic  feet,  even  where  there  is 
an  excellent  system  of  ventilation.  Electric  fans  are  some- 
times employed  to  force  pure  air  into  school  buildings.  As 
yet  they  have  not  come  into  very  general  use,  because  of  the 
expense  and  care  required  to  maintain  them. 

The  normal  temperature  of  the  schoolroom  is  generally 
stated  to  be  about  70°  F.  It  is  better  that  the  temperature 
fall  slightly  below  this  than  slightly  above.  Temperatures 
between  65°  and  68°  are  recommended  by  the  highest  author- 
ities. It  is  not  easy  to  secure  an  even  ventilation  throughout 
the  schoolroom.  Where  stoves  are  used,  a  large  room  should 
contain  two  of  medium  size  rather  than  one  very  large  stove. 
There  should  be  provided  inlets  for  the  admission  of  fresh 
air  where  the  stoves  are  located.  The  stove  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  screen,  or  "  jacket,"  to  insure  the  distribution 
of  the  air  that  has  been  warmed  and  the  warming  of  the 
fresh  air  as  it  enters  the  room. 

On  the  subject  of  furnace  heat,  Mr.  T.  M.  Clark  makes 
the  following  suggestions : 

"  It  is  much  disputed  whether  furnace  registers  should  be 
in  walls  or  floor,  or,  if  in  the  wall,  at  what  height.  For 
large  buildings  with  strong  ventilation  the  best  position 
seems  to  be  in  the  wall,  6  feet  or  so  above  the  floor.  Then 
the  current  warms  to  some  extent  the  lower  strata  of  the 
atmosphere  of  the  room,  without  blowing  directly  upon  any 
one,  -and  the  tendency  of  the  hot  air  to  collect  at  the  ceiling 
is  counteracted  by  the  draught  toward  the  lower  register  of 
the  ventilating  shaft.  Where  the  ventilation  is  as  feeble,  as 


112  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

it  will  generally  be  without  fans  or  special  sources  of  heat 
in  the  shaft,  this  tendency  of  the  hot  current  to  rise  out  of 
reach  cannot  be  overcome ;  and  although  the  fresh  warm  air, 
like  an  inverted  lake  filling  up  from  below,  finally  reaches 
the  occupants  of  the  room,  much  of  its  heat  is  wasted  in 
warming  the  ceiling.  So  that  for  such  cases,  which  include 
most  small  buildings,  the  best  position  for  registers  will  be 
either  low  in  the  wall,  and  directed  so  that  the  strong  hori- 
zontal current  from  them  will  not  annoy  any  one,  or  in  the 
floor,  where  the  natural  disposition  of  the  air  to  rise  is  coun- 
teracted by  its  clinging  to  the  floor,  along  which  it  travels 
horizontally  a  considerable  distance  before  leaving  it  to 
ascend  to  the  upper  regions.  Floor  registers  are  liable  to 
gather  dust ;  they  must  be  kept  clean. 

"An  inconvenient  breeze  from  a  register,  either  hot  or 
cold,  may  be  lessened  without  diminishing  the  supply  of  air, 
by  widening  the  box  or  pipe  in  trumpet  shape,  with  the 
mouth  toward  the  exit,  and  putting  on  a  larger  register  plate. 
Wire  gauze  either  over  or  under  the  register  will  also  do 
much  to  diffuse  the  current  gently. 

"Furnaces  should  be  set  under  the  northwest  corner  of 
the  building,  and  registers  may  be  placed  in  the  four  angles ; 
the  greater  length  of  pipe  needed  to  reach  the  southern  reg- 
isters, and  the  consequent  obstruction  by  friction,  will  be 
compensated  for  by  the  natural  circulation  of  the  air  in  the 
room,  upward  on  the  sunny  side  and  downward  on  the  cold 
side,  so  that  the  delivery  will  be  uniform  at  all  the  registers, 
which  it  will  not  be  if  the  furnace  is  centrally  placed. 
Stoves,  also,  heat  more  equally  if  set  in  the  coldest  corner. 

"  Eegisters  and  the  so-called  ventilating  stoves  should  not 
be  situated  so  near  the  opening  of  the  ventilating  shaft  that 
the  air  from  them  will  be  drawn  into  the  shaft  as  fast  as 
delivered.  The  best  position  is  at  the  same  end  of  the  room 
as  the  shaft,  but  at  one  side.  Then,  the  lower  inlet  only  of 
the  shaft  being  open,  the  upward  tendency  of  the  warm, 
fresh  air  from  the  heater  will  carry  it  up  out  of  reach  before 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  113 

it  can  be  drawn  laterally  far  enough  to  enter  the  shaft.  It 
will  then  move  along  the  ceiling  to  the  further  end  of  the 
room,  descend  to  the  floor  by  cooling,  and  will  be  drawn 
back  into  the  ventilator  only  after  a  circulation  through  the 
room  more  extended  and  thorough  than  could  be  attained 
with  any  other  relative  position  of  outlet  and  inlet. 

"  A  serious  difficulty  is  often  experienced,  both  with  base- 
ment furnaces  and  ventilating  stoves,  through  the  action  of 
the  wind  on  the  exterior  opening  of  the  cold  air  box  or 
other  fresh  air  supply.  It  is  customary  to  direct  these 
toward  the  north  or  northwest,  and  the  result  is,  that  with  a 
high  wind  from  that  quarter  the  air  is  driven  through  the 
air  chamber  of  the  furnace  and  up  through  the  registers 
much  faster  than  it  can  be  warmed. 

"  The  usual  remedy  is  to  close  the  damper  in  the  air  box, 
so  that  the  sectional  area  of  the  inward  current  shall  be 
diminished  in  proportion  to  its  increased  velocity.  If  the 
air  box  were  tight  and  the  wind  steady,  this  would  be  cor- 
rect; but  in  practice,  the  wind  comes  in  puffs,  to  guard 
against  which  the  damper  is  too  much  closed,  and,  the  nor- 
mal supply  of  air  being  thus  curtailed,  the  furnace,  to  make 
up  the  deficiency,  draws  from  the  cellar,  through  the  cracks 
and  pores  of  the  air  chamber  and  box,  such  air  as  it  can  find. 

"  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  sheltered  side  of  the  building  is 
chosen  for  taking  in  fresh  air  supply,  a  strong  wind  from 
the  opposite  quarter  will  create  a  vacuum  on  the  lee  side  of 
the  house  strong  enough  to  reverse  the  natural  current,  and 
will  draw  air  out  of  the  building,  through  the  registers  and 
air  chamber  of  the  furnace,  the  warm  air  issuing  at  the  ori- 
fice where  the  cold  should  go  in.  This  is  not  a  rare  occur- 
rence, and  cannot  be  remedied  without  some  trouble. 

"To  obviate  both  these  difficulties  and  insure  a  steady 
and  sufficient  supply  to  the  stove  or  furnace  at  all  times,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  carry  the  cold  air  box  through  the 
building,  with  orifices  at  each  end ;  the  furnace  is  then  sup- 
plied by  means  of  a  short  pipe,  drawing  from  the  side  of 

SCH.  INT.  &  DUT. 8 


114  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

the  main  box  at  right  angles  with  it.  The  wind  may  then 
blow  through  the  main  box  at  will,  without  disturbing  the 
furnace,  which  takes  from  the  stream  just  what  it  needs 
and  no  more.  Where  several  registers  are  to  be  supplied 
with  cold  fresh  air  for  mixing  with  warm,  a  similar  large 
main  box,  tapped  at  right  angles  by  the  minor  pipes,  forms 
much  the  best  arrangement. 

"If  the  force  of  the  wind  still  makes  itself  felt  in  the 
rooms,  a  further  check  may  be  found  in  a  screen  made  of 
two  thicknesses  of  wire  gauze,  with  wool  loosely  picked  and 
spread  between  them.  Independent  of  its  use  for  checking 
the  force  of  the  current,  this  'air  filter'  is  valuable  for 
straining  out  dust  and  soot  where  the  fresh  air  supply  is 
unavoidably  taken  from  a  street  or  other  dusty  place." 

The  system  of  steam  heating  is  growing  in  popularity. 
It  has  the  advantage  of  superior  manageability ;  for  while 
it  is  necessary  that  the  furnace  be  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
house,  in  order  that  the  hot  air  may  rise  through  the  build- 
ing, the  source  of  the  steam  heat  may  be  in  any  part  of  the 
building,  or  in  a  separate  structure  built  for  the  purpose  — 
the  latter  being  by  far  the  better  arrangement. 

While  the  furnace  system  supplies  not  only  heat,  but  also 
ventilation,  the  hot  pipes  of  the  steam-heating  apparatus  sup- 
ply heat  only,  leaving  the  supply  of  fresh  air  to  be  secured 
by  other  means.  Steam  can  be  carried  to  a  long  distance, 
and  it  is  unnecessary  that  the  intervening  space  through 
which  it  passes  shall  be  heated  to  any  considerable  extent. 

The  form  of  steam  heat  which  is  generally  preferred  is 
that  of  low  pressure  —  four  or  five  pounds  to  the  square 
inch.  The  circuit  is  generally  made  with  two  pipes  —  a 
larger  one  for  the  passage  of  the  steam,  and  a  smaller  one 
for  the  return  of  the  condensed  vapor  and  the  water.  Eadi- 
ators  are  used,  in  such  number  as  may  be  required,  each 
constituting  a  smaller  circuit  of  its  own,  connected  with  the 
main  pipes.  The  radiators  have  generally  a  rough  exterior 
as  such  surfaces  radiate  heat  more  rapidly. 


SCHOOL   HYGIENE  115 

The  warming  of  the  room  is  effected  by  the  condensation 
of  the  steam,  for  in  this  there  is  much  heat  given  off.  In 
the  process  of  condensation  there  is  a  rarefaction  of  the  air 
in  the  radiators ;  and  with  the  best  of  appliances  for  sup- 
plying air  to  equalize  the  pressure,  there  is  often  a  disagree- 
able noise  as  a  result  of  the  partial  vacuum  thus  produced. 

Unless  efficient  and  adequate  means  be  provided  for  the 
admission  of  fresh  air  and  the  drawing  off  of  the  vitiated 
air  of  the  schoolroom,  steam  heating  is  not  to  be  com- 
mended. It  does  not  add  to  the  quantity  of  fresh  air  in  the 
room,  nor  does  it  remove  any  of  the  foul  air.  It  produces 
but  a  slight  current  or  movement  of  air.  In  this  respect  it 
is  very  different  from  the  system  of  furnace  heat,  which 
throws  into  a  chamber  a  constant  current  of  warm,  fresh 
air ;  it  is  also  very  different  from  the  system  of  heating  by 
means  of  stoves  of  whatever  description  —  for  these  cause  a 
draught  which  carries  away  much  of  the  foul  air. 

However,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  system  of  steam 
heating  should  not  be  rendered  entirely  satisfactory  by  mak- 
ing ample  provision  for  the  ventilation  of  the  rooms  —  as  is 
often  done  where  this  system  is  in  use. 

By  systems  of  indirect  steam  heating  (as  they  are  called) 
the  advantages  of  furnace  heat  and  of  steam  heat  may  be 
combined.  The  fresh  air  may  be  admitted  in  the  basement, 
and,  passing  through  a  coil  of  steam  pipes,  may  be  distrib- 
uted through  the  buildings,  as  in  the  case  of  an  ordinary 
furnace;  or,  fresh  air  may  be  admitted  into  the  various 
rooms  through  the  outer  walls,  in  such  a  way  as  to  pass 
through  the  radiators  and  become  heated  in  its  passage. 

The  system  of  hot  water  heating  has  been  successfully 
applied  in  many  schools.  It  is  based  upon  the  principle 
that  hot  water  will  rise  and  cold  water  will  fall  in  a  complete 
circuit  of  water  pipes,  and  that  there  will  be  a  continuous 
current  when  the  heat  is  applied  to  a  portion  of  the  circuit. 
The  water  rises  in  the  ascending  pipes  as  it  becomes  warm ; 
and,  as  it  cools,  it  descends  with  the  descent  of  the  pipes. 


116  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Since  water  employed  for  heating  purposes  is  kept  at 
a  temperature  much  lower  than  that  of  steam,  radiators 
larger  than  those  of  the  steam-heating  system  are  employed 
in  its  use.  The  tank  which  supplies  the  water  is  elevated 
to  a  point  as  high  as  the  radiators  in  the  upper  rooms,  and 
is  connected  with  the  circuit  of  pipes  in  such  a  way  as  to 
permit  the  free  flow  of  the  water.  Since  there  are  no  valves 
in  the  tank,  no  difficulty  is  experienced  from  the  expansion 
and  contraction  of  the  water  in  the  pipes  as  it  becomes 
hotter,  and  then  colder.  The  system  of  hot  water  heating, 
like  that  of  steam  heating,  does  not  provide  for  currents  of 
fresh  air,  nor  for  the  withdrawal  of  vitiated  air  of  the 
schoolroom,  and  these  must  be  provided  for,  in  addition. 

In  comparing  the  various  systems  of  heating  schoolrooms, 
Dr.  Currier  says  as  follows : 

"  It  may  be  stated  that  hot-air  furnaces  of  the  best  quality 
(properly  put  up),  if  never  overheated  and  always  carefully 
supplied  with  fresh  air  from  a  pure  source,  give  the  best 
results  in  heating  an  ordinary  house  and,  at  the  same  time, 
ventilating  it. 

"In  very  large  houses,  that  are  much  exposed  to  cold 
weather,  a  hot-water  system  as  an  auxiliary  is  excellent  for 
supplying  equable,  extra  warmth  by  means  of  radiators  used 
on  the  lower  floor  and  on  the  bleakest  side  of  the  house. 

"For  warming  larger  buildings,  such  as,  for  instance, 
schoolhouses,  a  good  furnace  arrangement  can  be  both  eco- 
nomical and  very  satisfactory.  This  is  notably  the  case  with 
mediuttbsized  buildings.  For  the  largest  structures,  and 
especially  when  they  are  not  compact,  steam  heating  by  the 
indirect  system  is  the  most  satisfactory.  It  is  usually  more 
expensive  than  the  hot-air  furnace. 

"  Exhaust  flues  for  ventilating  —  that  is,  for  drawing  out 
the  bad  air  —  are  a  very  desirable  addition  to  all  buildings. 
With  heating,  ventilation  should  be  combined. 

"  As  regards  the  comparative  cost  of  steam  and  hot  water 
for  warming,  it  may  be  said  that  steam  usually  costs  more 


SCHOOL  HYGIENE  117 

to  operate.  Some  recent  careful  observations  made  at  the 
Cornell  Agricultural  Station  (Bulletin  41,  August,  1892) 
showed  that  where  there  were  many  bends  in  the  pipes  and 
long  levels,  steam  was  considerably  cheaper  than  water, 
regardless  of  the  styles  of  heaters.  Others  have  reached 
similar  conclusions.  In  Massachusetts  and  elsewhere,  how- 
ever, hot  water  heating  has  been  found  to  be  cheaper  than 
the  use  of  steam,  when  once  the  pipes  and  radiators  were 
set.  This  is  in  conformity  with  what  general  theoretical 
conclusions  allow  one  to  suppose.  To  determine  which  is 
the  better  method  for  heating,  one  must  carefully  consider 
the  situation,  as  hot  w^ater  can  be  a  more  costly  means  of 
heating  than  steam. 

"  Under  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  hot  water  heat- 
ing, it  appears  slightly  less  expensive  than  heating  by  hot 
air  or  steam,  when  once  the  very  costly  piping  is  intro- 
duced." 

Cleanliness.  —  A  very  important  sanitary  consideration  in 
any  school  is  the  cleanliness  of  the  building.  The  rooms 
should  be  carefully  swept,  and  the  dust  should  be  wiped 
from  the  furniture  and  the  wainscoting  —  not  thrown  into 
the  air  by  means  of  a  feather  duster.  Heavy  moldings  and 
projections  of  woodwork,  which  catch  the  dust,  are  by  no 
means  desirable  in  a  schoolroom.  The  floor  should  be  fre- 
quently gone  over  with  a  slightly-dampened  mop. 

The  principal  should  make  careful  examinations  of  the 
basement.  Too  frequently  this  is  neglected,  and  the  base- 
ment rooms  become  littered  with  refuse  materials.  An 
investigation  will  sometimes  disclose,  stored  away  in  the 
basement,  highly  inflammable  oils  and  kindling,  old  chem- 
ical apparatus  and  supplies  of  a  dangerous  character,  piles 
of  old  furniture  carelessly  stored,  affording  hiding  places 
for  vermin  and  accumulating  dust  and  dampness.  The 
basement  should  be  kept  dry  and  clean,  and  should  be  a 
receptacle  for  only  such  materials  as  can  be  stored  in  it 
with  entire  safety. 


118  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Very  much  will  depend  upon  the  janitor,  whose  selection 
and  retention  should  be  conditioned  upon  his  efficiency  in 
all  the  details  of  his  work.  A  careless,  indolent  janitor 
may  be  the  cause  of  untold  inconvenience  and  misery  to 
teachers  and  pupils.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  janitor 
is  appointed  to  his  place  without  a  careful  consideration  of 
the  requirements  of  the  service.  Sometimes  the  position  is 
given  to  an  aged  or  incompetent  person,  as  a  matter  of  char- 
ity or  of  personal  favor.  In  the  janitorship,  true  civil  ser- 
vice principles  should  strictly  prevail.  The  janitor  should  be 
a  willing,  intelligent,  conscientious,  and  in  every  way  efficient 
person.  Experience  will  add  to  the  value  of  his  services. 

The  hygiene  of  the  school  demands  cleanliness,  not  only 
of  the  building,  but  of  the  pupils,  as  well.  Sometimes  this 
is  difficult  to  secure,  even  when  ample  lavatories  are  pro- 
vided in  the  school  buildings.  Of  course,  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  parent  to  see  that  the  child  is  cleanly  and  well-kept. 
Unfortunately,  however,  parents  are  sometimes  derelict  in 
this  matter,  and  the  duty  devolves  upon  the  already  over- 
burdened teacher.  Some  principals  require  that  the  pupil 
shall  have  his  shoes  thoroughly  cleaned  and  polished  before 
coming  to  school,  and  for  a  failure  in  this  respect  will  mark 
a  demerit  upon  the  record  of  the  pupil's  deportment. 

With  proper  conveniences  supplied  in  the  lavatory  of  the 
schoolroom,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  children  should  not 
always  appear  with  clean  hands  and  faces,  and  with  hair  well 
brushed.  The  teacher's  duty,  however,  does  not  end  here. 

Dentists  who  have  conducted  investigations  of  the  teeth 
of  pupils  in  the  public  schools  have  made,  sometimes,  sur- 
prising revelations.  In  the  case  of  many  pupils,  the  teeth 
become  carious  and  offensive.  What  can  the  teacher  do  to 
remedy  or  mitigate  this  evil  ?  By  the  exercise  of  tact  he 
can  impress  practical  lessons  in  the  hygiene  of  the  teeth, 
without  giving  offense  to  any.  While  making  his  talks  on 
the  subject  general,  he  can,  at  the  same  time,  make  them 
personally  felt. 


SCHOOL   HYGIENE  119 

Care  of  the  Eyes.  — Investigations  made  by  oculists  in  the 
schoolrooms  have  revealed  a  strong  tendency  to  myopia,  or 
nearsightedness,  as  a  result  of  the  pupils'  study.  This  ten- 
dency is  far  less  where  the  true  principles  of  lighting  are 
observed  in  building  the  schoolhouses.  Where  the  rooms 
are  properly  lighted,  and  the  pupils  are  instructed  how  to 
hold  their  books,  there  yet  remains  the  further  consideration 
of  suitable  type  and  paper  for  schoolbooks. 

Whatever  the  merits  of  a  text-book  for  school  use,  if  its 
type  be  such  as  to  cause  injury  to  the  eyes,  it  should  be 
condemned.  The  smaller  pupils  require  larger  type  than 
those  of  the  more  advanced  grades.  The  primers  and  first 
readers  are  prepared  with  this  fact  in  view.  Without  being 
an  expert  in  all  forms  of  typography,  the  teacher  should 
acquire  a  sufficient  familiarity  with  the  more  important 
sizes  of  type  generally  employed  in  books,  and  should  be 
competent  to  pass  upon  the  merits  of  a  text-book  in  respect 
to  its  typography.  In  books  of  higher  mathematics,  the 
exponential  letters  and  figures  are  frequently  so  small  as  to 
prove  very  trying  to  the  sight. 

Position  at  Desk,  etc.  —  In  the  matter  of  school  desks  and 
seating,  there  is  room  for  the  exercise  of  careful  discrimina- 
tion and  judgment,  for  into  this,  important  physiological 
considerations  necessarily  enter.  With  the  best  of  school 
seats  and  desks,  it  is  possible  for  children  to  do  themselves 
harm  by  sitting  in  unnatural  positions,  resting  upon  their 
elbows,  and  in  various  ways  warping  their  figure  out  of  its 
proper  shape. 

The  pupils  should  learn  to  sit  erect,  with  the  shoulders 
even  and  thrown  back,  and  with  the  soles  of  both  feet  rest- 
ing naturally  upon  the  floor.  They  should  walk  and  stand 
erect.  Their  gait  should  be  natural.  They  should  not  "  toe 
in."  With  the  shoulders  thrown  back,  the  arms  will  fall 
naturally  in  such  a  position  that  the  thumbs  will  be  inclined 
outward.  With  the  chest  expanded  and  the  head  erect, 
there  will  be  much  less  danger  of  diseases  of  the  lungs. 


120  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Food  and  Water.  —  Even  in  the  pupils'  eating,  the  teacher's 
influence  should  be  exerted  to  some  extent.  While  he  can- 
not meddle  with  the  household  economy  of  the  parents,  he 
can  give  force  and  effect  to  the  lessons  of  the  text-books  in 
physiology,  so  that  the  pupil  will  have  an  enlightened  under- 
standing of  the  common  foods,  their  uses  and  abuses. 

As  to  the  water  which  the  pupils  drink  at  school,  the 
school  officers  and  teachers  have  a  direct  responsibility  which 
should  not  be  ignored.  Water  for  drinking  purposes  must 
be  clean  and  pure.  Suitable  water  for  drinking  cannot  be 
secured,  generally,  without  much  thought  and  care  and  some 
expense.  The  sources  of  its  supply  should  be  carefully  in- 
vestigated, and  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent 
its  contamination. 

The  evil  effects  of  drinking  impure  water,  like  those  of 
breathing  impure  air,  are  often  long  concealed,  or,  at  least, 
are  not  conspicuously  noticeable.  They  often  cause  epidem- 
ics and  deplorable  loss  of  life  in  the  end,  while  this  might 
have  been  easily  avoided  by  a  little  thought  and  care  on  the 
part  of  those  having  in  charge  the  water  supply. 

The  responsibility  of  teachers  and  school  officers  for  the 
health  and  comfort  of  the  pupils  is  very  great.  It  is  no 
light  charge  to  be  accountable  for  the  physical  well-being 
of  the  scores  or  hundreds  of  children  and  youths  in  a  school. 

The  teacher  owes  it  to  the  parents  in  whose  place  he 
stands,  to  the  board  by  which  he  is  employed,  to  the  pupils 
especially,  and  to  himself,  as  well,  to  take  a  deep  interest  in 
the  hygienic  conditions  of  his  school,  and  to  post  himself 
thoroughly  upon  the  subject  by  every  means  in  his  power ; 
and  the  school  officer,  guided  by  his  personal  observation, 
by  the  teacher's  knowledge  of  the  hygienic  necessities  of 
the  building  and  appliances,  and  by  such  other  suggestions 
as  come  to  him  from  reliable  sources  of  information,  should 
feel  the  responsibility  resting  upon  him  to  provide  all  things 
within  his  power  to  supply  for  the  health,  comfort,  order, 
and  happiness  of  the  children  at  school. 


IV 

ARBOR  DAY   CELEBRATIONS 
THE  DICTIONARY,  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT 


CHAPTER   VI 
ARBOR  DAY  CELEBRATIOXS 

Origin  and  History  of  Arbor  Day. — Nebraska  has  the  honor 
of  originating  the  celebration  of  Arbor  Day.  In  1874,  at  the 
request  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  the  Governor  of 
the  State  appointed  the  second  Wednesday  of  April  as  a  day 
for  the  planting  of  trees  by  the  citizens  generally,  and  it  is 
said  that  millions  of  trees  were  planted  on  that  day. 

In  Kansas  the  day  was  first  observed  in  the  city  of 
Topeka,  in  accordance  with  a  proclamation  by  the  mayor 
of  that  city.  Other  States  which  were  deficient  in  timber 
fell  rapidly  in  line.  Then  still  other  States  began  to  observe 
the  day  as  a  school  holiday,  which  was  devoted  not  merely 
to  the  planting  of  trees,  but  to  the  beautifying  of  school 
grounds  as  well. 

If  Arbor  Days  are  necessary  in  the  prairie  States,  they 
are  not  less  needed  in  States  in  which  timber  abounds.  In 
almost  every  rural  district  there  is  need  for  improvement  in 
the  grounds  about  the  schoolhouse.  The  day  has,  moreover, 
its  social  and  moral  benefits,  which  are  not  to  be  rated 
lightly.  It  affords  an  opportunity  for  neighborhood  visit- 
ing and  consultation.  It  brings  together  the  teacher,  the 
parents,  and  the  pupils,  and  prevents  estrangements  be- 
tween them.  It  gives  to  all  a  new  interest  in  the  school 
and  its  work.  It  affords  an  opportunity  to  present  to  the 
parties  most  interested  the  school  needs  of  the  hour. 

The  time  for  Arbor  Day  is  generally  chosen  in  the  latter 
part  of  April  or  the  first  of  May.  In  New  York  the  day  is  a 

123 


124  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

State  holiday,  and  is  designated  as  the  first  Friday  following 
the  first  day  of  May.  In  Iowa  the  27th  of  April  (the  birth- 
day of  General  Grant)  has  been  thus  observed.  In  most 
States  the  selection  of  the  day  is  made  from  year  to  year, 
and  the  celebration  is  appointed  by  proclamation  of  the 
Governor  or  by  request  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction.  A  notable  celebration  of  Arbor  Day  occurred 
in  Cincinnati,  in  1882,  when  the  city  schools  were  dis- 
missed for  two  days  (April  27  and  28),  and  the  pupils  of 
all  grades  participated  in  the  exercises. 

These  were  held  in  Eden  Park,  of  that  city.  About  six 
acres  of  the  Park  were  set  apart  for  an  Authors'  Grove,  and 
each  school  or  department  selected  an  author  in  whose 
memory  a  tree  was  planted.  The  planting  of  the  trees  was 
performed  by  practical  horticulturists  on  this  occasion,  but 
the  pupils  filled  around  the  trees  the  loose  soil  left  for  that 
purpose,  and  their  musical  and  literary  exercises  were  long 
to  be  remembered.  The  names  of  the  authors  in  whose 
honor  the  trees  were  set  out  were  preserved  by  lettered 
stone  markers. 

The  fame  of  Authors'  Grove  and  of  its  originator,  John 
B.  Peaslee,  soon  became  national,  and  a  very  general  incen- 
tive to  celebrations  of  this  sort  was  given  to  the  schools  of 
the  entire  country.  The  cause  was  aided  by  the  active 
influence  of  Hon.  B.  G.  Northrop,  who  delivered  addresses 
in  many  States  on  the  subject  of  landscape  gardening  for 
school  grounds. 

In  1883  the  American  Forestry  Congress,  in  its  session  at 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  recommended  the  appointment  of  an  Arbor 
Day  in  every  State  and  in  all  the  Provinces  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada. 

Unless  material  good  can  be  accomplished,  the  interrup- 
tion of  the  studies  of  the  school  for  an  Arbor  Day  celebra- 
tion will  prove  unprofitable.  The  judicious  teacher,  however, 
will  be  certain  to  make  the  most  of  the  opportunity  which 
the  day  presents  for  securing  needful  cooperation.  Then  it 


ARBOR  DAT  CELEBRATIONS  125 

is  that  unsightly  piles  of  lumber,  coal,  firewood,  logs,  or 
other  materials  can  be  removed  from  the  yards ;  sheds  for 
fuel  can  be  built  or  repaired ;  wells  can  be  cleaned,  walks 
laid,  and  fences  mended.  Beautiful  flower  beds  can  be  con- 
structed. Ungainly  or  noxious  trees  and  vines  can  be  cut 
away,  admitting  the  wholesome  sunlight. 

A  moral  effect  of  the  Arbor  Day  celebrations  in  Cincinnati 
was  noted  by  Superintendent  Peaslee  in  his  address  on  the 
subject  to  the  Department  of  Superintendence  at  Washing- 
ton, in  1884.  In  many  cities,  on  holiday  occasions,  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  post  a  large  number  of  special 
policemen  to  guard  the  trees  of  the  parks  from  the  knives 
of  vandals.  Not  a  tree  was  injured  at  Eden  Park  by  any 
one  of  the  many  thousands  of  school  children,  who  had 
unusual  opportunities  for  perpetrating  mischief  of  this 
description. 

Choice  of  Trees.  —  The  choice  of  trees  for  planting  in 
school  grounds  should  be  made  with  some  care.  Trees  of 
offensive  odor,  and  those  which  attract  insects,  litter  the 
ground,  sprout  at  the  roots,  bear  thorns,  and  prove  other- 
wise objectionable  should  be  avoided.  As  a  rule,  the  trees 
which  grow  wild  in  the  same  locality  are  most  certain  of 
a  vigorous  growth,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  to  the 
expense  and  trouble  of  procuring  exotics,  though  a  few  of 
the  latter  may  afford  a  pleasing  variety  and  prove  of  special 
interest  to  the  pupils. 

Where  shade  is  urgently  needed,  rapidly  growing  trees 
are  often  preferred,  though  these  are  the  earliest  to  die,  and 
are  apt  to  become  unsightly  within  a  few  years.  If  such 
trees  be  used  at  all,  their  retention  should  be  considered 
temporary  at  best,  and  more  substantial  trees  of  slower 
growth  should  be  set  out  at  the  same  time,  to  supply  the 
shade  for  the  future,  when  the  rapid  growers  shall  have 
been  cleared  away. 

Of  the  trees  which  yield  a  quick  return  and  achieve  an 
early  growth,  the  Silver  Maple  (Acer  dasycarpum),  the  Caro- 


126  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

lina  Poplar  (Populus  monilifera),  and  the  Box  Elder  (Negundo 
aceraides)  are  familiar  to  all.  Among  the  best  of  all  trees 
for  the  school  yard  are  the  Sugar  Maple  (Acer  sachari- 
num),  the  Eed  Maple  (Acer  rubrum),  the  Linden,  or  Bass- 
•wood  (Tilia  Americana),  the  Elm  (Ulmus  Americana),  the 
White  Pine  (Pinus  strobus),  and  a  variety  of  Cedars  and 
Larches. 

Other  desirable  trees  to  scatter  over  the  lawn  are  the 
Beech  (Fagus  ferruginea),  the  Ash  (Fraxinus  Americana), 
the  Sycamore  (Plantanus  occidentalis),  the  Horse  Chestnut, 
or  Buckeye  (^sculus  hippocastanum),  and  the  Chestnut 
(Castanea  vesca). 

Suggestions  for  Planting.  —  A  circular  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  (U.  S.)  contains  the  following  valuable  sug- 
gestions : 

"  Transplanting  is  at  best  a  forcible  operation,  and  injury 
to  the  roots,  although  it  may  be  small,  is  almost  unavoid- 
able. The  roots  are  the  life  of  the  tree,  and  need,  therefore, 
the  most  attention.  In  taking  up  a  tree  for  transplanting,  the 
greatest  care  must  be  exercised  to  secure  as  much  of  the 
root  system  intact  as  possible,  especially  of  the  small  fibrous 
roots. 

"  Never  allow  roots  to  become  dry,  from  the  time  of  taking 
up  the  tree  until  it  is  transplanted.  A  healthy  looking  tree 
may  have  the  certainty  of  death  in  it  if  the  root  fibrils  are 
dried  out.  To  prevent  drying  during  transportation,  cover 
the  roots  with  moist  straw  or  moss  or  bags,  or  leave  on  them 
as  much  soil  of  the  original  bed  as  possible.  At  the  place 
where  the  tree  is  to  be  planted,  if  the  planting  cannot  be  done 
at  once,  'heel  in7  the  roots,  i.e.,  cover  them  and  part  of  the 
lower  stem  with  fresh  earth,  or  place  the  tree  in  the  plant 
hole,  throwing  several  spadefuls  of  earth  on  the  roots. 

"  Pruning  roots  and  branches  is  almost  always  necessary, 
but  must  be  done  with  great  care,  especially  as  to  root  prun- 
ing. The  cutting  at  the  roots  should  be  as  little  as  possible, 
only  removing  with  a  clean  sharp  cut  the  bruised  and  broken 


AEBOE  DAY  CELEBRATIONS  127 

parts.  Extra  long  tap  roots  may  be  cut  away,  but  all  the 
small  fibers  should  be  preserved.  The  cutting  at  the  top 
is  done  to  bring  crown  and  root  into  proportion ;  the  more 
loss  the  root  system  has  experienced,  the  more  need  of 
reducing  the  crown  system.  Larger  trees,  therefore,  usually 
require  severer  pruning,  especially  on  poor  soils ;  yet  if  there 
be  fibrous  roots  enough  to  sustain  great  evaporation  from 
the  crown,  the  less  cut  the  better.  "With  large  trees  severe 
pruning  is  less  dangerous  than  too  little.  A  clean  cut  as 
clese  as  possible  to  the  stem  or  remaining  branch  will  facili- 
tate the  healing  of  the  wound. 

"  Xo  stumps  should  be  left  (except  with  conifers,  which 
suffer  but  little  pruning).  Shortening  of  the  end  shoots  to 
i  or  J  of  their  length  may  be  done  a  little  above  a  bud  which 
is  to  take  the  lead.  As  a  rule,  the  pruning  for  symmetry 
should  have  been  done  a  year  or  so  before  transplanting,  but 
may  be  done  a  year  after. 

"  Holes  are  best  made  before  the  trees  are  brought  to  the 
ground.  They  should  be  a  little  deeper  than  the  depth  of 
the  root  system,  but  twice  as  large  around  as  seems  neces- 
sary, to  facilitate  penetration  of  rains  and  development  of 
rootlets  through  the  loosened  soil.  Place  the  top  soil,  which 
is  better  (being  richer  in  easily  assimilated  plant  food)  to 
one  side,  the  raw  soil  from  the  bottom  to  the  other  side ;  in 
filling  back  bring  the  richer  soil  to  the  bottom. 

"  If  it  be  practicable,  improve  a  heavy  loamy  soil  by  add- 
ing to  and  mixing  with  it  looser  sandy  soil,  or  a  loose  poor 
soil  by  enriching  it  with  loam  or  compost.  Keep  all  stones 
out  of  the  bottom ;  they  may  be  used  above  the  roots,  or, 
better,  on  the  surface.  Providing  proper  drainage  is  the 
best  means  of  improving  ground  for  tree  planting.  Use  no 
manure  except  as  a  top  dressing. 

"  Planting  is  best  done  by  two  or  three  persons.  A,  who 
manipulates  the  tree,  is  the  planter  and  responsible  for  the 
result;  B  and  C  do  the  spading  under  his  direction.  A 
places  the  tree  in  the  hole,  to  ascertain  whether  this  is  of 


128  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

proper  size;  a  board  or  stick  laid  across  the  hole  aids  in 
judging  the  depth. 

"  Trees  should  not  be  set  deeper  than  they  stood  before, 
except  in  loose,  poor  soil.  More  trees  are  killed  by  too  deep 
planting  than  the  reverse.  If  the  root  system  is  developed 
sideways,  but  not  centrally,  as  is  often  the  case,  a  hill  is 
raised  in  the  hole  to  fill  out  the  hollow  space  in  the  root 
system,  and  the  earth  of  the  hill  is  patted  down  with  the 
spade.  When  the  hole  is  in  proper  order,  A  holds  the  tree 
perpendicularly  in  the  middle  of  the  hole,  with  the  side 
bearing  the  fullest  branches  toward  the  south  or  southwest, 
for  better  protection  of  the  shaft  against  the  sun.  B  and  C 
spread  the  roots  into  a  natural  position,  then  fill  in  the 
soil,  using  the  good  soil  first  —  small  spadefuls  deliberately 
thrown  over  the  roots  in  all  directions — while  A,  by  a 
slight  shaking  and  pumping  up  and  down  of  the  stem,  aids 
the  earth  in  settling  around  the  rootlets. 

"  A  close  contact  of  the  soil  with  the  rootlets  is  the  secret 
of  success  in  planting.  Only  fine  mellow  soil,  not  too  moist, 
and  free  from  stones,  will  permit  such  close  adjustment  to 
the  rootlets,  which  should  also  be  aided  by  hand  and  fingers 
filling  in  every  crevice.  A,  while  setting  the  tree,  must 
exercise  care  to  keep  it  in  proper  position  and  perpendicular, 
until  the  soil  is  packed  so  as  to  keep  the  tree  in  place ;  then 
B  and  C  rapidly  fill  the  holes,  A  treading  down  the  soil 
firmly  after  a  sufficient  quantity  is  filled  in,  finishing  off  a 
little  above  the  general  level  to  allow  for  settling,  and  finally 
placing  the  stones  or  any  mulching  around  the  stem. 

"  The  practice  of  using  water  while  planting  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  a  good  one,  unless  the  water  is  very  carefully  ap- 
plied with  a  '  rose '  after  the  soil  is  well  filled  in  and  packed 
around  the  fibrous  roots.  Especially  with  a  soil  which  has 
a  tendency  to  clog,  there  is  great  danger  of  an  uneven  dis- 
tribution and  settling,  with  consequent  empty  spaces  between 
the  roots.  More  trees  are  probably  killed  by  too  much  water 
in  transplanting  than  by  too  little.  Water  after  the  trans- 


ARBOR  DAY  CELEBRATIONS  129 

planting  (and  perhaps  before  the  last  shovels  of  earth  are 
filled  in),  especially  if  the  soil  was  dry,  is  useful  and  should 
be  applied  during  the  hot  season,  choosing  the  late  afternoon 
or  evening  for  applying  it. 

"  Any  mulch  of  waste  material,  hay,  straw,  or,  better,  wood 
shavings  or  chips,  sawdust,  or  even  stones  simply  placed 
around  the  foot  of  the  tree,  is  of  excellent  service  in  check- 
ing evaporation. 

"  Keeping  the  ground  free  from  weeds  and  grass,  and  pre- 
venting it  from  baking,  by  occasional  hoeing  and  raking,  is 
advisable.  To  prevent  the  trees  from  being  swayed  by  the 
wind,  if  of  larger  size,  they  should  be  staked  firmly ;  a  loose 
post  is  worse  than  none.  The  tying  should  be  so  done  as 
not  to  cut  or  injure  the  tree ;  a  tree  box  insures  more  safety 
against  accidents.  With  the  development  of  the  crown  it 
becomes  necessary  to  trim  it,  so  as  to  carry  the  top  above 
reach.  Trees  are  not  benefited  by  being  used  as  hitching 
posts  or  as  climbing  poles." 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  the  pupils  themselves  shall  par- 
ticipate very  generally  in  the  actual  work  of  Arbor  Day. 
They  will  take  greater  interest  and  pride  in  preserving  the 
improvements  to  which  their  own  labors  have  contributed. 

Literary  Exercises.  — The  literary  exercises  of  Arbor  Day 
generally  precede  the  manual  work,  and  may  be  short  or 
extended,  as  circumstances  may  suggest.  After  the  cus- 
tomary opening  prayer  by  one  of  the  clergymen  who  may 
be  present,  the  teacher  or  superintendent  in  charge  should 
read  the  proclamation  or  official  letter  of  the  Governor  or 
the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  appointing  the 
observance  of  the  day. 

Letters  may  be  read  from  former  teachers  or  superin- 
tendents, and  from  any  distinguished  educator  or  other  per- 
sons who  may  with  propriety  be  invited  to  contribute  in 
this  way  to  the  interest  of  the  occasion.  Suitable  music 
should  be  provided,  and  singing  in  the  open  air  is  always 
enjoyable. 

SCH.    INT.    &    DUT. 9 


130  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

A  number  of  books  and  pamphlets  of  suitable  literary 
exercises  for  Arbor  Day  have  been  published,  from  time  to 
time,  and  there  need  be  no  lack  of  appropriate  material  for 
a  programme. 

In  order  that  the  greatest  number  of  pupils  may  par- 
ticipate without  prolonging  these  exercises  to  an  extent 
that  will  prove  wearisome,  it  is  well  to  have  the  selec- 
tions for  recitation  generally  very  short.  These  may  be 
interspersed  with  a  few  pieces  of  some  length,  and  by  other 
exercises  that  may  suggest  themselves  to  the  teacher.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  call  the  names  of  the  speakers.  If  number 
cards  are  distributed  among  the  pupils,  each  will  know  his 
place  on  the  programme  by  counting  the  speakers  preceding 
him.  Small  cards  with  numbers  marked  upon  them  may  be 
placed  in  a  basket  or  box  and  drawn  by  the  children  at  some 
convenient  time  and  place. 

It  may  happen  at  times  that  the  outdoor  work  of  Arbor 
Day  will  be  found  unnecessary,  or  that,  for  other  reasons,  it 
will  be  dispensed  with.  In  that  case,  the  literary  exercises 
of  the  day  may  be  simplified.  In  a  schoolroom  suitably 
decorated  there  may  be  an  appropriate  observance  of  the 
day,  even  though  it  occupy  but  a  minor  part  of  the  daily 
programme. 

The  following  short  selections  will  be  found  appropriate 
for  Arbor  Day  exercises  in  which  a  large  number  of  chil- 
dren participate : 

1.  When  the  warm  sun,  that  brings 

Seedtime  and  harvest,  has  returned  again, 
'Tis  sweet  to  visit  the  still  wood,  where  springs 
The  first  flower  of  the  plain. 

—  HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW. 


2.  The  pine  forests  thrill  with  emotion 

Of  praise,  as  the  spirit  sweeps  by  : 
With  a  voice  like  the  murmur  of  ocean, 
To  the  soul  of  the  listener  they  cry. 


AEBOE  DAY  CELEBRATIONS  131 

Oh !  sing,  human  heart,  like  the  fountain, 

With  joy  reverential  and  free, 
Contented  and  calm  as  the  mountain, 

And  deep  as  the  woods  and  the  sea. 

—  CHARLES  T.  BROOKS. 

3.  There  is  no  death  !    The  dust  we  tread 

Shall  change,  beneath  the  summer  showers, 
To  golden  grain  or  mellow  fruit 
Or  rainbow-tinted  flowers. 

—  LORD  LYTTON. 

4.  One  impulse  from  a  vernal  wood 

May  teach  you  more  of  man, 
Of  moral  evil,  and  of  good, 
Than  all  the  sages  can. 

—  WILLIAM  WORDSWORTH. 

5.  For  there  is  hope  of  a  tree,  if  it  be  cut  down,  that  it  will  sprout 

again, 

And  that  the  tender  branch  thereof  will  not  cease. 
Though  the  root  thereof  wax  old  in  the  earth, 
And  the  stock  thereof  die  in  the  ground ; 
Yet  through  the  scent  of  water  it  will  bud, 

And  put  forth  boughs  like  a  plant. 

—  JOB  xiv.  7-9. 

6.  Into  the  blithe  and  breathing  air, 

Into  the  solemn  wood, 
Solemn  and  silent  everywhere, 
Nature,  with  folded  hands,  seemed  there 
Kneeling  at  her  evening  prayer ; 

Like  one  in  prayer  I  stood. 

— •  HENRY  WADS  WORTH  LONGFELLOW. 

7.  Like  leaves  on  trees  the  life  of  man  is  found, 

Now  green  in  youth,  now  withering  on  the  ground  ; 

Another  race  the  following  spring  supplies, 

They  fall  successive  and  successive  rise  ; 

So  generations  in  their  course  decay  ; 

So  nourish  these,  while  those  have  passed  away. 

—  ALEXANDER  POPE. 


132  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

8.  Alas,  for  him  who  never  sees 

The  stars  shine  through  his  cypress  trees  ; 
Who,  hopeless,  lays  his  dead  away, 
Nor  looks  to  see  the  breaking  day 
Across  the  mournful  marbles  play  ; 
Who  hath  not  learned,  in  hours  of  faith, 
The  truth  to  flesh  and  sense  unknown, 
That  Life  is  ever  lord  of  death, 
And  Love  can  never  lose  its  own. 

—  JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITHER. 

9.  A  little  of  thy  steadfastness, 
Bounded  with  leafy  gracefulness, 

Old  oak,  give  me,  — 

That  the  world's  blasts  may  round  me  blow, 
And  I  yield  gently  to  and  fro, 
While  my  stout-hearted  trunk  below 

And  firm-set  roots  unshaken  be. 

—  JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL. 

10.  These  airs,  whose  breathing  stirs 

The  fresh  grass,  are  our  fellow-worshipers. 

See,  as  they  pass,  they  swing 

The  censers  of  a  thousand  flowers,  that  bend 

O'er  the  young  herbs  of  spring, 

And  the  sweet  odors  like  a  prayer  ascend, 

While,  passing  thence,  the  breeze 

Wakes  the  grave  anthem  of  the  forest  trees. 

—  WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT. 

11.  Summer  or  winter,  day  or  night, 
The  woods  are  an  ever  new  delight ;  , 

They  give  us  peace,  and  they  make  us  strong, 
Such  wonderful  balms  to  them  belong  ; 
So,  living  or  dying,  I'll  take  my  ease 
Under  the  trees,  under  the  trees. 

—  KICHARD  HENRY  STODDARD. 

12.  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow  ;  they  toil  not, 
neither  do  they  spin  ;  and  yet  I  say  unto  you  that  even  Solomon,  in 
all  his  glory,  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these.     Wherefore,  if  God 
so  clothe  the  grass  of  the  field,  which  to-day  is,  and  to-morrow  is  cast 
into  the  oven,  shall  he  not  much  more  clothe  you,  O  ye  of  little  faith  ? 

—  MATTHEW  vi.  28-30. 


ARBOR  DAY  CELEBRATIONS  133 

13.  Oh  !  Rosalind,  these  trees  shall  be  my  books, 
And  in  their  barks  my  thoughts  I'll  character, 
That  every  eye  which  in  this  forest  looks 
Shall  see  thy  virtue  witnessed  everywhere. 

—  WILLIAM  SHAKSPEARE. 

14.  Out  of  the  years  bloom  the  eternities  ; 
From  earth-clogged  root 

Life  climbs  through  leaf  and  bud  by  slow  degrees, 

Till  some  far  cycle  heavenly  blossom  sees, 

And  perfect  fruit.  -Lucy  LARCOM. 

15.  The  true  basis  of  national  wealth  is  not  gold,  but  wood.     For- 
est destruction  is  the  sin  that  has  caused  us  to  lose  our  earthly  para- 
dise.    "War,  pestilence,  storms,  fanaticism,  and  intemperance,  together 
with  all  other  mistakes  and  misfortunes,  have  not  caused  half  so  much 
permanent  damage  as  that  fatal  crime  against  the  fertility  of  our 

Mother  Earth. 

—  FELIX  L.  OSWALD. 

16.  O  whispering  trees,  companions,  sages,  friends, 
No  change  in  you,  whatever  friendship  ends  ; 
No  deed  of  yours  the  Eden  link  e'er  broke  ; 
Bared  is  your  head,  to  ward  the  lightning's  stroke. 
You  fed  the  infant  man  and  blessed  his  cot, 
Hewed  from  your  grain  ;  without  you,  he  were  not. 
The  hand  that  planned  you  planned  the  future,  too  ; 
Shall  we  distrust  it,  knowing  such  as  you  ? 

—  JOAQUIN  MILLER. 

17.  It  is  better  to  know  the  habits  of  one  plant  than  the  names  of 
a  thousand  ;  and  wiser  to  be  happily  familiar  with  those  that  grow  in 
the  nearest  field,  than  arduously  cognizant  of  all  that  plume  the  isles 
of  the  Pacific,  or  illumine  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon. 

—  JOHN  RUSKIN. 

18.  This  is  the  state  of  man.     To-day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hope  ;  to-morrow,  blossoms, 
And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him  ; 
The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost ; 

And  when  he  thinks  —  good,  easy  man  —  full  surely 

His  greatness  is  a-ripening,  nips  his  roots, 

And  then  he  falls,  as  I  do.        _  WluJiM  SHAKSPEAKE. 


134  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

19.  There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods ; 
There  is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  shore ; 
There  is  society  where  none  intrudes, 

By  the  deep  sea,  and  music  in  its  roar. 

I  love  not  man  the  less,  but  nature  more  — 

From  these  our  interviews,  in  which  I  steal 

From  all  I  may  be,  or  have  been  before, 

To  mingle  with  the  universe,  and  feel 

What  I  can  ne'er  express,  yet  cannot  all  conceal. 

—  LORD  BYRON. 

20.  I  love  to  go  in  the  capricious  days 

Of  April,  and  hunt  violets,  when  the  rain 
Is  in  the  blue  cups  trembling,  and  they  nod 
So  gracefully  to  the  kisses  of  the  wind. 
It  may  be  deemed  too  idle,  but  the  young 
Read  Nature  like  the  manuscript  of  heaven, 
And  call  the  flowers  its  poetry. 

—  NATHANIEL  PARKER  WILLIS. 

21.  Faint  murmurs  from  the  pine  tops  reach  my  ear, 
As  if  a  harp  string  —  touched  in  some  far  sphere  — 
Vibrating  in  the  lucid  atmosphere, 

Let  the  soft  south  wind  waft  its  music  here. 

—  THOMAS  BAILEY  ALDRICH. 

22.  Throw  hither  all  your  quaint  enameled  eyes, 
That  on  the  green  turf  suck  the  honeyed  showers, 
And  purple  all  the  ground  with  vernal  flowers. 
Bring  the  rathe  primrose,  that  forsaken  dies, 
The  tufted  crow-toe,  and  pale  jessamine, 

The  white  pink,  and  the  pansy,  freaked  with  jet, 
The  glowing  violet, 

The  musk  rose,  and  the  well-attired  woodbine, 
With  cowslips  wan,  that  hang  the  pensive  head, 
And  every  flower  that  sad  embroideiy  wears. 

—  JOHN  MILTON. 

23.  Keeping  up  a  fit  proportion  of  forests  to  arable  land,  is  the 
prime  condition  of  human  health.     If  the  trees  go,  men  must  decay. 
Whosoever  works  for  the  forests  works  for  the  happiness  and  perma- 
nence of  our  civilization.     A  tree  may  be  an  obstruction,  but  it  is 


ARBOR  DAY  CELEBRATIONS  135 

never  useless.  Now  is  the  time  to  work,  if  we  are  to  be  blessed  and 
not  cursed  by  the  people  of  the  twentieth  and  twenty-first  centuries. 
The  nation  that  neglects  its  forests  is  surely  destined  to  ruin. 

—  ELIZUR  WEIGHT. 

24.  The  leaf  tongues  of  the  forest,  the  flower  lips  of  the  sod, 
The  happy  birds  that  hymn  their  rapture  in  the  ear  of  God, 
The  summer  wind  that  bringeth  music  over  land  and  sea, 
Have  each  a  voice  that  singeth  this  sweet  song  of  songs  to  me  : 
"This  world  is  full  of  beauty,  like  other  worlds  above, 

And  if  we  did  our  duty,  it  might  be  full  of  love." 

—  GERALD  MASSEY. 

25.  There  is  nothing  that  so  strongly  binds  a  man  to  a  place  as  the 
bright  memories  of  life  due  to  cheerful  homes  and  pleasant  surround- 
ings.    These  cannot  exist  in  a  bleak  and  cheerless  waste  ;  they  can  be 
secured  only  by  timely  and  judicious  planting  of  trees. 

—  FRANKLIN  BENJAMIN  HOUGH. 

26.  Not  merely  growing,  like  a  tree, 

In  bulk,  doth  make  man  better  be  ; 

Or  standing  long  an  oak  three  hundred  years, 

To  fall  a  log  at  last,  dry,  bald  and  sear. 

A  lily  of  a  day  is  fairer  far  in  May, 

Although  it  fall  and  die  that  night. 

It  was  the  plant  and  flower  of  light ; 

In  small  proportions,  we  just  beauties  see, 

And,  in  short  measure,  life  may  perfect  be. 

—  BEN  JONSON. 

27.  Then  rears  the  ash  his  airy  crest, 
Then  shines  the  birch  in  silver  vest, 

And  the  beech  in  glistening  leaves  is  dressed ; 
And,  dark  between,  shows  the  oak's  proud  breast, 
Like  a  chieftain's  frowning  tower. 

—  SIR  WALTER  SCOTT. 

28.  There  is  something  unspeakably  cheerful  in  a  spot  of  ground 
which  is  covered  with  trees,  that  smiles  amidst  all  the  rigors  of  winter, 
and  gives  us  a  view  of  the  most  gay  season  in  the  midst  of  that  which 
is  the  most  dead  and  melancholy. 

—  JOSEPH  ADDJSON, 


136  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

29.  Trees  have  about  them  something  beautiful  and  attractive 
even  to  the  fancy.    Since  they  cannot  change  their  place,  they  are 
witnesses  of  all  the  changes  that  take  place  around  them;   and,  as 
some  reach  a  great  age,  they  become,  as  it  were,  historical  monu- 
ments ;   and,  like  ourselves,  they  have  a  life,  growing  and  passing 
away,  not  being  inanimate  and  unvarying,  like  the  fields  and  rivers. 
One  sees  them  passing  through  various  stages,  and  at  last,  step  by 
step,   approaching  death,  which  makes   them   look   still  more  like 

ourselves. 

—  ALEXANDER  VON  HUMBOLDT. 

30.  Spake  full  well,  in  language  quaint  and  olden, 

One  who  dwelleth  by  the  castled  Rhine, 
When  he  called  the  flowers,  so  blue  and  golden, 
Stars,  that  in  earth's  firmament  do  shine. 

Wondrous  truths,  and  manifold  as  wondrous, 

God  hath  written  in  those  stars  above  ; 
But  not  less  in  the  bright  flowrets  under  us, 

Stands  the  revelation  of  his  love. 


Everywhere  about  us  they  are  glowing ; 

Some,  like  stars,  to  tell  us  spring  is  born  ; 
Others,  their  blue  eyes  with  tears  o'erflowing, 

Stand  like  Ruth  amid  the  golden  corn. 

And  with  child-like,  credulous  affection, 

We  behold  their  tender  buds  expand  ; 
Emblems  of  our  own  great  resurrection, 

Emblems  of  the  bright  and  better  land. 

—  HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW. 

31.  There  is  something  nobly  simple  and  pure  in  a  taste  for  the 
cultivation  of  forest  trees.  It  argues,  I  think,  a  sweet  and  a  generous 
nature  to  have  this  strong  relish  for  the  beauties  of  vegetation,  and 
this  friendship  for  the  hardy  and  glorious  sons  of  the  forest.  There 
is  a  grandeur  of  thought  connected  with  this  part  of  rural  economy. 
...  He  who  plants  an  oak  looks  forward  to  future  ages,  and  plants 
for  posterity.  Nothing  can  be  less  selfish  than  this. 

-. —  WASHINGTON  IRVING. 


ARE  OB  DAY  CELEBRATIONS  137 

Come  forth,  O  ye  children  of  gladness,  come  ! 
Where  the  violets  lie  may  be  now  your  home. 
Ye  of  the  rose  lip,  and  dew-bright  eye, 
And  the  bounding  footsteps,  to  meet  me,  fly  ! 
With  the  lyre  and  the  wreath  and  the  joyous  lay, 
Come  forth  to  the  sunshine  ;  I  may  not  stay. 

—  FELICIA  DOROTHEA  HEMANS. 


33.  When  you  have  finished  a  building  or  any  other  undertaking 
of  the  like  nature,  it  immediately  begins  to  decay  on  your  hands  ;  you 
see  it  brought  to  its  utmost  point  of  perfection,  and  from  that  time 
hastening  to  its  ruin.  On  the  contrary,  when  you  have  finished 
planting  a  tree,  it  is  still  arriving  at  greater  degrees  of  perfection,  as 
long  as  you  live,  and  appears  more  delightful  in  each  succeeding  year 
than  it  did  in  the  foregoing. 

—  JOSEPH  ADDISON. 


34.      The  groves  were  God's  first  temples.     Ere  man  learned 
To  hew  the  shaft,  and  lay  the  architrave, 
And  spread  the  roof  above  them  ;  ere  he  framed 
The  lofty  vault  to  gather  and  roll  back 
The  sound  of  anthems ;  in  the  darkling  wood, 
Amid  the  cool  and  silence,  he  knelt  down 
And  offered  to  the  Mightiest  solemn  thanks 
And  supplication.     For  his  simple  heart 
Might  not  resist  the  sacred  influences 
Which,  from  the  still  twilight  of  the  place, 
And  from  the  gray  old  trunks  that,  high  in  heaven, 
Mingled  their  mossy  boughs,  and  from  the  sound 
Of  the  invisible  breath,  that  swayed  at  once 
All  their  green  tops,  stole  over  him,  and  bowed 
His  spirit  with  the  thought  of  boundless  power 
And  inaccessible  majesty.    Ah,  why 
Should  we,  in  the  world's  riper  years,  neglect 
God's  ancient  sanctuaries,  and  adore 
Only  among  the  crowd,  and  under  roofs 
That  our  frail  hands  have  raised  ?  .  .  .     Let  me,  at  least, 
Here,  in  the  shadow  of  this  aged  wood, 
Offer  one  hymn — thrice  happy,  if  it  find 
Acceptance  in  His  ear. 

—  WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT. 


138  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

35.  For  Nature  beats  in  perfect  tune, 

And  rounds  with  rhyme  her  every  rune  ; 

Whether  she  work  in  land  or  sea, 

Or  hide  underground  her  alchemy. 

Thou  canst  not  wave  thy  staff  in  air, 

Or  dip  thy  paddle  in  the  lake, 

But  it  carves  the  bow  of  beauty  there, 

And  the  ripples  in  rhymes  the  oar  forsake. 

The  wood  is  wiser  far  than  thou ; 

The  wood  and  wave  each  other  know. 

Not  unrelated,  unaffied, 

But  to  each  thought  and  thing  allied, 

Is  perfect  Nature's  every  part, 

Rooted  in  the  mighty  Heart. 

—  KALPH  WALDO  EMERSON. 


Come,  come  into  the  wood  ; 

Pierce  into  the  bowers 

Of  these  gentle  flowers, 

Which,  not  in  solitude 

Dwell,  but  with  each  other  keep  society, 

And,  with  a  simple  piety, 

Are  ready  to  be  woven  into  garlands  for  the  good ; 

Or,  upon  summer  earth, 

To  die,  in  virgin  worth  ; 

Or  to  be  strewn  before  the  bride, 

And  the  bridegroom,  by  her  side. 

Come  forth  on  Sundays  ; 

Come  forth  on  Mondays  ; 

Come  forth  on  any  day  ; 

Children,  come  forth  to  play ;  — 

Worship  the  God  of  Nature  in  your  childhood  ; 

Worship  Him  at  your  tasks  with  best  endeavor  ; 

Worship  Him  in  your  sports  ;  worship  Him  ever,; 

Worship  Him  in  the  wildwood  ; 

Worship  Him  amidst  the  flowers  ; 

In  the  greenwood  bowers ; 

Pluck  the  buttercups,  and  raise 

Your  voices  in  His  praise  ! 

—  YOUL. 


ARBOR  DAT  CELEBRATIONS  139 

He  who  plants  a  tree 

Plants  a  hope. 

Rootlets  up  through  fibers  blindly  grope  ; 
Leaves  unfold  into  horizons  free. 

So  man's  life  must  climb 

From  the  clods  of  time 

Unto  heavens  sublime. 
Canst  thou  prophesy,  thou  little  tcee, 
What  the  glory  of  thy  boughs  shall  be  ? 


He  who  plants  a  tree 

Plants  a  joy ; 

Plants  a  comfort  that  will  never  cloy  — 
Every  day  a  fresh  reality, 

Beautiful  and  strong, 

To  whose  shelter  throng 

Creatures  blithe  with  song. 
If  thou  couldst  but  know,  thou  happy  tree, 
Of  the  bliss  that  shall  inhabit  thee. 


He  who  plants  a  tree, 

He  plants  peace. 

Under  its  green  curtains  jargons  cease, 
Leaf  and  zephyr  murmur  soothingly  ; 

Shadows  soft  with  sleep 

Down  tired  eyelids  creep, 

Balm  of  slumber  deep. 
Never  hast  thou  dreamed,  thou  blessed  tree, 
Of  the  benediction  thou  shalt  be. 


He  who  plants  a  tree, 
He  plants  youth ; 

Vigor  won  for  centuries  hi  sooth ; 

Life  of  time  that  hints  eternity  ! 

Boughs  their  strength  uprear, 
New  shoots  every  year 
On  old  growths  appear. 

Thou  shalt  teach  the  ages,  sturdy  tree, 

Youth  of  soul  is  immortality. 


140  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

He  who  plants  a  tree, 

He  plants  love ; 

Tents  of  coolness  spreading  out  above 
Wayfarers  lie  may  not  live  to  see. 

Gifts  that  grow  are  best ; 

Hands  that  bless  are  blest ; 

Plant :  life  does  the  rest ! 
Heaven  and  earth  help  him  who  plants  a  tree, 
And  his  work  its  own  reward  shall  be. 

—  LUCY  LARCOM. 

Indoor  Exercises.  —  In  cities,  where  the  school  grounds  are 
apt  to  be  limited  in  extent  and  carefully  kept,  the  observance 
of  Arbor  Day  may  take  the  permanent  form  of  indoor  exer- 
cises, supplemented,  perhaps,  in  the  case  of  certain  grades, 
by  a  visit  to  a  neighboring  park,  botanical  garden,  or  grove, 
for  the  purpose  of  viewing  or  collecting  specimens  of  plant 
life. 

In  the  schoolroom  observance  of  the  day  by  a  high  school, 
the  exercises  should  partake  of  a  scientific  character.  Essays 
on  various  interesting  topics  of  botanical  study,  descriptions 
of  vegetable  growths,  —  especially  those  related  to  the  indus- 
trial world,  —  sketches  of  the  history  of  the  science,  bio- 
graphical sketches  of  eminent  botanists,  etc.,  are  appropriate 
to  such  occasions. 

Where  an  excursion  to  the  woods  or  fields  is  arranged, 
care  should  be  taken  to  improve  the  opportunity  thus  offered 
for  a  profitable  study  of  growing  plants.  Good  specimens 
procured  on  such  occasions  should  be  preserved ;  and  it  is 
just  as  easy  to  do  this  properly  and  systematically  as  to  do 
it  otherwise. 

Plant  Collections.  —  The  following  suggestions  relative  to 
plant  collections  will  be  of  value  to  the  practical  teacher, 
whether  he  be  engaged  in  high  school  work  or  in  that  of  the 
country  district  school : 

1.  Every  schoolhouse  should  be  supplied  with  some  sort 
of  a  cabinet  for  the  preservation  and  display  of  plant  col- 
lections of  scientific  interest.  Representative  high  schools 


ARBOR   DAY  CELEBRATIONS  141 

are  now  requiring  each  pupil  in  their  classes  in  botany  to 
make  analyses  of  fifty  plants,  as  a  part  of  the  regular  work 
in  this  study.  In  this  age,  pupils  are  taught  to  study  the 
plants  themselves,  and  not  merely  what  the  books  say  about 
them. 

The  teacher  of  botany  should  be  supplied  at  all  times  with 
specimens  for  the  illustration  of  the  study.  When  the  grow- 
ing flowers  cannot  be  procured,  pressed  or  dried  specimens 
should  be  at  hand.  Class  after  class  should  leave  in  the 
school  cabinet  the  best  of  their  scientifically  prepared  speci- 
mens, as  their  contribution  to  the  collection.  The  plainest 
country  schoolhouse  may  thus  contain  rich  treasures  gathered 
from  the  forest  and  prairie. 

2.  Specimens  of  plants  for  analysis  and  for  preservation 
in  the  herbarium  should  be  secured  generally  entire,  with 
their  roots,  though  no  specimen  for  permanent  preservation 
should  exceed  16  inches  in  length.     Where  it  is  necessary 
to  divide  the  plant,  both  the  upper  (branch  leaf)  and  lower 
(seed  leaf)  portions  should  be  preserved.     Specimens  should 
be  secured  with  flowers,  leaves,  and  fruit. 

3.  In  gathering  specimens,  pupils  should  be  provided  with 
strong  knives  or  knife  trowels,  for  cutting  and  digging,  and 
with  a  covered  tin  trunk,  or  box,  about  16  inches  in  length, 
and  of  a  form  to  be  conveniently  carried.     Specimens  kept 
moist  by  sprinkling  will  remain  fresh  for  a  number  of  days 
in  such  a  box. 

4.  In  gathering  ferns  or  brakes,  two  fronds  of  each  should 
be  taken,  in  order  that  both  sides  may  be  shown ;  or  a  large 
fern  may  be  doubled  back  upon  itself.     Mosses  should  be 
first  dried,  and  then  moistened,  preparatory  to  pressing. 
Plants  that  are  apt  to  come  to  pieces  in  the  press  should  be 
previously  steeped  in  boiling  water.     In  drying  specimens 
for  herbariums,  care  should  be  observed  in  preserving  the 
natural  color  and  form  of  the  plant.     In  order  to  effect  this, 
it  is  essential  that  the  moisture  be  absorbed  before  there  is 
any  decomposition. 


142  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

5.  The  simplest  flower  press  consists  of  two  flat  boards, 
12  x  22  inches  in  size,  bolted  together  by  an  ordinary  bolt 
at  the  middle  of  each  end.     Unless  the  nuts  be  furnished 
with  handles,  a  small  wrench  will  be  needed  to  turn  them. 
Cleats  across  the  ends  of  the  boards  will  prevent  warping. 

Drying  mats  of  convenient  size,  consisting  of  several  thick- 
nesses of  newspapers  stitched  together,  should  be  supplied, 
and  there  should  be  also  a  few  sheets  of  this  blotting  paper. 
Drying  papers  will  require  to  be  changed  daily.  Thick 
stems  of  plants  may  be  split  lengthwise,  in  order  to  hasten 
the  drying. 

6.  When  pressed,  specimens  should  lie  in  a  natural  posi- 
tion; crooked  stems  should  not  be  straightened,  nor  straight 
stems  curved.     The  pressure  should  be  applied  gradually, 
and  continued  for  several  days. 

7.  The  pressed  specimens  should  be  gummed  to  sheets  of 
thick  white  paper  or  light  cardboard,  161  x  10^  inches  in 
size.     Sometimes  the  plant  may  be  held  in  place  by  strips 
of  gummed  paper,  but  it  is  apt  to  be  better  preserved  when 
fastened  securely  to  the  sheet. 

The  sheets  may  be  kept  in  a  portfolio,  consisting  of  paste- 
board covers  fastened  by  tapes  or  straps  passing  through 
slits  in  each  cover,  forming  a  hinge  behind,  and  tied  or 
buckled  in  front. 

The  sheets  should  be  arranged  with  their  backs  to  the  left, 
and  should  bear  a  label  on  the  lower  left  corner.  The  label 
should  be  neatly  written,  and  should  give  the  name  of  the 
plant  (the  scientific  name,  generic  and  specific,  if  the  col- 
lector is  sure  of  the  species ;  also  the  common  name),  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  collector  and  the  time  and  place  at 
which  it  was  gathered. 

In  place  of  loose  sheets,  a  scrapbook  may  be  used,  if  pre- 
ferred, and  may  be  labeled  in  the  same  manner. 

8.  Lichens,  cones,  seeds,  etc.,  cannot  be  pressed  flat.     For 
these,  suitable  cases  may  be  made  by  gluing  old  slate  frames 
firmly  to  pieces  of  cardboard  trimmed  to  the  proper  size. 


ARBOR  DAY  CELEBRATIONS  143 

The   wood   of    the   frames    may  be    covered  with  white 
paper. 

9.  Plant  photography  is  not  only  valuable  in  its  results, 
but  is  an  interesting  process  in  itself.     It  will  be  necessary 
to  procure  a  solution  of  ammonia  (muriate  of  ammonia  60 
grains,  water  6  ounces),  a  silver  solution  (nitrate  of  silver 
120  grains,  distilled  water  and  alcohol  each  1^  ounces),  and 
a  baryta  solution  (hydriodate  of  baryta  8  grains,  sulphate  of 
iron  10  grains,  water  2  ounces).     The  silver  solution  must 
be  filtered  from  the  sediment,  which  will  form  in  a  few  hours, 
and  must  be  kept  in  a  black  glass  bottle.     A  few  drops  of 
diluted  sulphuric  acid  should  be  added  to  the  baryta  solution, 
which  should  be  poured  off,  after  settling. 

Strips  of  highly  glazed  paper  should  be  cut  into  suitable 
sizes  and  bathed  in  the  ammonia  solution,  then  hung  from 
one  corner  by  a  pin  hook  on  a  line  to  dry.  When  ready  to 
use,  the  prepared  paper  should  be  quickly  brushed  over  with 
the  silver  solution,  and  placed  upon  a  smooth  block  of  wood 
of  like  size,  covered  with  a  paper  pad.  The  specimen  leaf 
should  be  turned  face  downward  upon  the  wet  paper,  and 
covered  with  a  pane  of  clear  glass,  the  size  of  the  sheet. 
The  apparatus  should  be  held  together  by  means  of  clamps 
or  of  heavy  rubber  straps,  and  exposed  to  the  light  for  a  day 
or  two.  The  picture,  on  being  removed,  should  be  washed, 
and  dried  between  two  folds  of  cloth,  then  the  baryta  should 
be  poured  over  it  and  turned  back  into  the  bottle. 

10.  Specimens  of  leaves  may  be  slightly  oiled,  and  pressed 
upon  sheets  of  paper,  leaving  upon  the  latter  an  oily  imprint. 
Powdered  crayons  of  any  color,  mixed  with  a  little  resin,  may 
be  sifted  upon  this  imprint ;  and  if  the  sheet  now  be  pressed 
with  a  moderately  hot  flatiron,  the  color  will  adhere  perma- 
nently to  the  oiled  surface,  bringing  out  the  figure  of  the 
specimen.     Thin  mucilage  or  paste  may  be  substituted  for 
the  oil,  and  "  Diamond  Dyes  "  for  the  chalk. 

11.  The  veins  of  leaves  may  be  shown  beautifully  and 
perfectly  by  the  following  process:   The  leaves  should  be 


144  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

soaked  for  many  days  in  soft  water,  after  which  the  green 
pulp  may  be  rubbed  off,  carefully,  with  a  soft  cloth.  The 
remaining  skeleton  of  the  leaf  should  be  immersed  for  twelve 
hours  in  a  solution  consisting  of  one  ounce  of  chloride  of  lime 
and  one  quart  of  water.  The  various  forms  of  venation 
should  be  illustrated  in  this  way. 

12.  Cross  sections  of  trees  form  a  very  interesting  part  of 
a  collection  of  woods.     The  sides  should  be  exactly  parallel, 
so  that  when  piled,  with  those  of  the  largest  diameter  at  the 
bottom,  the  disks  will  form  a  cone.     They  may  be  joined 
together  by  means  of  screw  eyes  in  the  opposite  sides,  or 
extended  into  a  chain.     There  should  be  two  screw  eyes  on 
each  side,  which  should  be  loosely  linked  or  tied  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  disks  may  be  either  piled  or  extended  at 
will. 

Small  longitudinal  slabs  of  wood,  having  the  general 
shape  of  a  book,  with  the  natural  bark  for  the  back,  may  be 
placed  together  in  a  case,  as  different  volumes  of  a  work  are 
placed  in  the  same  box.  A  shallow  box  will  answer  for  the 
case.  Strips  of  wood  of  triangular  section  may  be  formed 
into  a  rope  ladder,  by  means  of  chains  of  strings  passing 
along  the  ends.  The  natural  bark  should  be  left  to  form 
one  of  the  sides  of  the  triangle.  In  these  collections,  ex- 
posed portions  of  the  wood  may  be  coated  with  white  var- 
nish. Labels  should  be  placed  upon  the  disks,  below  the 
centers;  upon  the  book-form  slabs,  in  the  manner  of  the 
title  of  the  book ;  upon  the  rungs  of  the  rope  ladders,  on 
the  upper  triangular  surface. 

13.  Microscopic  slides  without  objects  are  called  slips. 
They  should  consist  of  a  piece  of  clear  glass,  3x1  inches  in 
size,  with  a  small  square  or  circular  cover  of  very  thin  glass. 
They  may  be  procured  of  dealers  or  prepared  by  the  teacher 
with  little  trouble.     A  ring  of  cement  (shellac  dissolved  in 
alcohol)  about  the  center,  to  hold  up  and  attach  the  cover, 
will  inclose  a  space  in  which  the  object  may  be  placed,  and, 
if  dry,  fixed  by  touching  with  the  white  of  an  egg.     The 


AEBOE  DAY  CELEBRATIONS  145 

slide  may  be  covered  with  colored  paper,  leaving  circular 
holes  above  and  below  the  cell,  and  should  be  carefully 
labeled  across  one  end. 

14.  A  plain  folio  drawing  book  should  be  kept  by  mem- 
bers of  classes  in  botany,  in  which  to  record  microscopic 
investigations.     Artistic  and  carefully  developed  drawings 
are  not  required.     Simple  outline  drawings  with  a  sketch 
pencil   will    answer    every   purpose.      A  brief  description 
should  accompany  each  sketch. 

15.  Plants  are  often  interesting  subjects  for  microscopic 
investigation.      Every   teacher   should   possess   at  least   a 
pocket  lens  for  constant  use.     Where  a  compound  micro- 
scope of  high  power  is  available,  a  much  wider  field  is  pre- 
sented for  study  and  investigation. 

Among  the  more  interesting  objects  for  observation  are 
simple  cellular  tissue,  fibre-vascular  bundles,  sporangia,  an- 
theridia  and  arcjiegonia,  stamens  and  pistils,  pollen  from 
the  anthers,  ovaries,  seeds,  plant  hairs,  protoplasm,  cell 
formation,  and  the  various  forms  of  woody  structure,  micro- 
scopic plants,  plant  crystals. 

16.  The  teacher  is  not  by  any  means  expected  to  limit 
his  collection  to  the  articles  above  described,  though  for  the 
sake  of  a  general  system  it  may  be  well  to  follow  the  direc- 
tions here  given.     Many  other  suitable  means  of  preserving 
and  displaying  specimens  and  illustrating  facts  brought  out 
in  the  study  of  plants  will  occur  to  the  ingenious  teacher. 

"Plants  may  teach  us  lessons  in  sacred  things,"  says 
Alphonso  Wood.  "  While  we  study  the  facts  and  the  forms 
of  the  vegetable  world,  we  should  also  aim  to  learn  the  pur- 
poses accomplished,  and  the  great  principles  adopted  in  its 
creation.  We  should  also  learn  to  recognize  here  the  tokens 
(too  long  overlooked)  which  declare  that  nature  sympathizes 
with  humanity  in  the  circumstances  of  the  Fall,  the  Kedemp- 
tion,  and  the  Life.  Such  study  alone  is  adapted  to  acquaint 
us  with  the  thoughts  of  the  intelligent  Creator,  and  to  disci- 
pline aright  the  mind  which  was  created  in  His  image. 

SCH.  INT.  &  CUT. — 10 


146  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

"  Botany  combines  pleasure  with  improvement.  It  con- 
ducts the  student  into  the  fields  and  forests,  amidst  the 
verdure  of  spring  and  the  bloom  of  summer ;  to  the  charm- 
ing retreats  of  Nature  in  her  wild  luxuriance,  or  where  she 
patiently  smiles  under  the  improving  hand  of  cultivation. 
It  furnishes  him  with  vigorous  exercise,  both  of  body  and 
mind,  which  is  no  less  salutary  than  agreeable,  and  its  sub- 
jects of  investigation  are  all  such  as  are  adapted  to  please 
the  eye,  refine  the  taste,  and  improve  the  heart." 

Benefit  of  Arbor  Day  Celebrations.  —  It  is  an  error  to  sup- 
pose that  Arbor  Day  observances  are  profitable  and  appro- 
priate only  to  certain  classes  of  schools.  There  is  no  school 
in  city  or  town  or  country  that  may  not  be  benefited  by 
a  hearty  celebration  of  the  day  in  some  form.  It  subserves 
a  variety  of  interests  —  material,  social,  educational,  moral, 
and  scientific. 

To  the  country  and  town  schools,  Arbor  Day  brings  the 
improvement  of  school  surroundings,  and  the  pleasant  social 
gathering  of  the  neighborhood;  to  city  schools,  the  enjoy- 
ment of  floral  decorations,  a  break  in  the  monotony  of 
school  routine  by  exercises  of  a  highly  interesting  and  ele- 
vating character,  and,  perhaps,  also,  a  delightful  visit  to 
parks  or  groves;  to  the  high  school  grades,  a  scientific 
entertainment,  whether  within  doors  or  without,  of  great 
value  as  an  auxiliary  to  their  science  study.  Let  the  day 
be  observed  in  some  appropriate  form  in  every  school ;  let 
it  be  productive  of  moral  and  material  good  in  every  grade ; 
and  the  memory  of  Arbor  Day  will  last  through  after  years, 
lingering  as  a  beautiful  picture  of  school  life,  and  exerting 
its  influence  upon  the  character  of  the  people. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  DICTIONARY,   AND  HOW  TO   USE  IT 

Ethics  of  Words.  —  The  correct  use  of  English  words  is 
a  matter  of  greater  importance  than  might  appear  upon  a 
superficial  consideration  of  the  subject.  We  are  not  apt  to 
think  of  it  from  the  standpoint  of  morals,  yet  to  the  con- 
scientious person  it  has  a  moral  side. 

What  true  man  or  woman  is  there,  who,  having  received 
a  valuable  heritage  in  trust,  to  be  transmitted  to  successors, 
does  not  feel  a  personal  responsibility  for  the  faithful  guar- 
dianship of  such  trust  ?  If  the  property  be  in  the  form  of 
money,  all  the  world  will  quickly  hold  to  account  the  unjust 
or  careless  steward  who  allows  it  to  be  wasted  and  causes  a 
deficit  to  appear  in  his  final  reckoning. 

Again,  what  worthy  citizen  enjoying  the  use  of  any  great 
public  work,  be  it  monument  or  edifice,  will  contribute  to 
its  defacement  or  injury  by  any  act  of  vandalism  ?  But  is 
there  a  heritage  of  money  or  a  public  monument  of  brick  or 
stone  that  can  compare  in  value  with  the  language  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  world  ? 

When  the  preservation  of  the  English  language  in  all  its 
purity  and  strength  is  considered  from  the  standpoint  of 
moral  obligation,  the  case  is  much  stronger  than  if  any  other 
language  of  the  world  were  under  consideration.  For,  in 
the  first  place,  the  English  is  apparently  destined  to  become 
the  universal  language  of  the  earth.  In  the  second  place, 
this  language  is  by  far  the  most  copious  and  delicate  that 
has  ever  been  spoken  on  the  globe. 

U7 


148  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Finally,  the  English  literature  is  the  most  valuable  in  all 
the  world  of  letters,  and,  by  means  of  masterly  translations, 
is  destined  to  include  all  the  great  works  in  the  literature 
of  the  entire  world.  The  history  of  the  present  century  has 
fixed  the  fate  of  our  language.  In  the  opening  years  the 
Spanish,  French,  and  German  languages  were  spoken  each 
by  a  greater  number  of  people  than  spoke  English.  At  the 
century's  closing,  the  almost  incredible  advance  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  and  literature  has  left  all  competitors  very  far 
behind,  while  the  rate  of  increase  is  at  this  moment  greater 
than  before. 

The  English  is  a  double  language,1  and  this  fact  accounts 
for  its  vast  number  of  words.  In  the  conquests  of  nations 
which  history  relates,  the  language  of  the  conquerors  gener- 
ally replaces  that  of  the  conquered.  The  Norman  conquest 
of  England,  in  1066,  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.  The  Nor- 
man nobles,  in  England,  continued  to  speak  the  Norman 
French,  while  the  English  inhabitants  retained  their  own 
speech,  until,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries,  each  of  the  na- 
tionalities had  acquired  the  language  of  the  other.  Inher- 
iting, as  we  do,  two  or  more  words  where  other  nations 
generally  possess  but  one,  we  are  enabled  to  express  the 
finest  shades  of  meaning ;  for  our  so-called  synonyms  have 
acquired,  usually,  a  slight  differentiation  of  signification 
and  use.  We  are  thus  able  to  distinguish  between  free- 
dom and  liberty,  begin  and  commence,  supply  and  furnish, 
answer  and  reply,  etc. 

The  misuse  of  words  tends  to  change  their  meaning,  and 
to  lessen  their  value.  By  preserving  the  true  meanings  of 
words  we  shall  be  able  to  transmit  to  posterity  and  to  the 
world  of  the  future  the  greatest  and  best  medium  of  com- 


iThe  English  language  —  like  all  other  modern  languages— contains 
words  derived  from  many  different  sources.  Nineteen  twentieths  of  our 
words,  however,  are  found  to  be  derived  from  the  two  elements  as  stated 
—  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Norman  French.  The  dividing  line  between 
these  lies  near  the  middle.  Of  the  words  used  by  Shakspeare,  60  per  cent 


THE  DICTIOXAHY.    AND  HOW   TO    USE  IT       149 

munication  between  man  and  man  —  a  language  fitted  by 
its  fullness,  its  strength,  and  its  flexibility  to  become  the 
speech  of  all  nations  in  the  future. 

The  mass  of  the  people  do  not  acquire  their  language 
from  dictionaries,  but  inductively,  from  what  they  hear  and 
read.  How  important  is  it,  then,  that  teachers,  writers,  and 
educated  people  generally  (who  are  accepted  by  the  many 
as  models  in  this  respect)  shall  inculcate  a  correct  and  dis- 
criminating use  of  words  and  a  high  standard  of  pronuncia- 
tion! A  teacher  who  mispronounces  words  or  who  uses 
them  in  a  sense  foreign  to  their  true  meaning  sows  in  fertile 
soil  the  seeds  of  error,  which  will  be  harvested  and  resown 
until  his  influence  for  evil  is  multiplied.  Let  us  strive, 
rather,  to  leave  an  influence  for  good  upon  the  language  of 
the  later  world. 

Let  us  seek  to  transmit  to  posterity,  unimpaired,  and 
increased  in  its  richness  and  fullness,  the  priceless  legacy 
of  the  English  Language. 

Use  of  the  Dictionary  in  the  Schoolroom.  —  The  dictionary 
should  be  always  accessible  to  teachers  and  pupils.  If  your 
schoolroom  is  not  already  supplied  with  a  standard  work  of 
this  description,  seek  to  remedy  the  defect  at  the  earliest 
moment.  You  cannot  successfully  teach  without  a  dictionary 
at  your  command. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  an  unused  dictionary  is  of 
no  value.  It  is  like  the  costly  apparatus  which,  in  too  many 
schools  of  the  past,  has  been  locked  in  an  unused  room,  to 
be  shown  to  occasional  visitors.  The  dictionary  should  be 
accessible  and  in  constant  use. 

Some  teachers  hedge  this  use  with  annoying  regulations 
which  tend  to  lessen  its  value.  This,  of  course,  should  be 


are  of  Saxon  origin.  The  same  is  true  of  the  words  in  our  common  Eng- 
lish Bible.  Most  authors  of  the  present  day  use  a  considerably  larger  per- 
centage of  words  derived  from  the  Xorman  French  than  did  the  writers  of 
an  earlier  period.  In  its  grammatical  structure,  the  English  language  is 
Anglo-Saxon. 


150  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

avoided.  The  dictionary  should  be  placed  in  the  most  con- 
veniently accessible  position  in  the  schoolroom,  and  its  use 
should  be  encouraged  by  the  granting  of  every  proper  facil- 
ity for  consulting  it.  A  good  dictionary  holder  is  perhaps 
better  than  a  table  for  holding  the  book ;  and  since  the  true 
teacher  is  wise  and  careful  in  little  matters,  he  will  use  dis- 
crimination in  his  selection  of  the  stand,  or  holder,  and  in 
its  location  in  the  room. 

Where  a  dictionary  is  published  in  several  volumes  (as, 
for  example,  TJie  Century  Dictionary,  which  can  be  procured 
in  six  separate  parts),  it  is  well  to  have  a  small  cabinet  of 
shelves  prepared  to  hold  them.  When  the  work  is  procured 
in  parts,  several  pupils  can  consult  it  at  one  and  the  same 
time.  The  divisions  of  the  cabinet  should  be  horizontal 
shelves,  so  that  they  may  be  lettered,  to  correspond  to  the 
respective  volumes  which  rest  upon  them. 

It  is  a  fact  that  very  many  pupils,  and  perhaps  a  large 
number  of  teachers,  as  well,  have  no  adequate  idea  of  the 
proper  use  of  the  dictionary.  They  consult  it  in  order  to 
learn  the  proper  spelling  and  pronunciation  of  words,  and 
to  find  a  meaning  which  will  serve  for  their  immediate  use ; 
and  with  many,  these  are  the  only  uses  that  are  made  of  the 
volume.  The  origin  of  words,  and  their  history,  the  syllab- 
ication, etc.,  are  passed  by,  as  of  no  consequence  —  though 
these  are  often  of  much  importance. 

Webster  as  a  Standard.  —  Webster's  dictionary  is  now  so 
generally  accepted  as  a  standard,  and  has  exerted  so  vast  an 
influence  upon  our  language,  that  every  teacher  should  be 
familiar  with  and  interested  in  the  reforms  which  the  author 
sought  to  effect. 

All  rules  of  language  have  their  exceptions,  and  the 
English  orthography  is  highly  inconsistent  with  itself,  at 
best.  Webster  sought  to  bring  to  bear  certain  rules  which 
would  simplify  the  English  spelling.  He  did  not  seek  to 
eliminate  all  the  silent  letters,  so  as  to  make  the  orthog- 
raphy strictly  phonetic;  for  that,  even  if  desirable  as  an 


THE  DICTIONARY,  AND  HOW  TO   USE  IT       151 

end,1  would  have  involved  so  radical  a  departure  as  to  insure 
failure  at  the  outset;  and  a  people  which  for  fifty  years 
held  out  against  the  use  of  the  decimal  point  in  arithmetic 
was  not  likely  to  accept  of  many  sweeping  innovations  at 
once.  But  Webster  succeeded  in  eliminating  from  our  orthog- 
raphy much  useless  lumber ;  and  interesting  estimates  have 
been  made  upon  the  vast  labor-saving  which  he  secured  to 
the  people  of  America,  at  least,  by  his  reforms.  One  of  the 
most  noticeable  services  of  the  great  American  lexicographer 
in  this  direction  was  the  elimination  of  the  useless  letter  u 
from  many  words  in  which  it  had  no  logical  place.  Already 
it  had  been  generally  dropped  from  cold,  bold  (anciently 
could,  bould),  etc.  Why  should  it  linger  in  mold  (mould)  ? 
The  final  e  had  been  long  dropped  from  tax,  wax,  etc.  Why 
should  it  remain  in  ax  (axe)  ? 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  Webster's  rules  relates  to 
the  doubling  of  final  consonants  when  terminations  are  added 
to  a  word.  With  this  rule  every  teacher  should  be  familiar, 
so  that  he  will  never  be  in  doubt  as  to  whether  he  should 
write  traveler  or  traveller,  woolen  or  woollen,  jeweler  or  jeweller. 

It  does  not  meet  the  case  to  say  that  authorities  differ  as 
to  the  spelling  of  these  words.  The  true  teacher  should  be 
familiar  with  the  rule  upon  which  Webster  acted  in  his 
treatment  of  them ;  and  if  that  rule  commends  itself  to  his 
judgment  (as  generally  it  will),  he  should  follow  it  and 
inculcate  it  in  his  pupils. 

The  order  of  the  various  meanings  of  a  word,  as  given  in 
Webster's  Dictionaries,  is  not  always  understood  by  teachers 
and  pupils. 

In  Latin  and  Greek  lexicons,  the  most  generally  applied 
meaning  is  given  first.  The  German  lexicographers,  who 


1  It  is  by  no  means  desirable  that  all  the  silent  letters  be  eliminated  from 
our  language.  Originally,  these  were  generally  vocalized,  and  have  become 
silent  through  the  change  of  usage  in  the  course  of  centuries.  As  late  as 
Shakspeare's  time  there  were  many  who,  in  their  pronunciation,  sounded 
the  b  in  debt,  the  I  in  calf,  etc.  The  gh  in  right,  thought,  etc.,  originally 


152  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

with  patience  and  industry  almost  unparalleled  have  com- 
piled the  lexicons  of  the  ancient  languages,  have  acted  upon 
this  plan.  They  have  taken  one  Latin  or  Greek  word  at  a 
time,  and  noted  every  instance  of  its  use  in  classical  litera- 
ture, the  context  indicating  in  each  case  its  particular  mean- 
ing in  a  sentence.  The  meaning  in  which  it  is  used  the 
greatest  number  of  times  has  been  set  down  as  its  first,  or 
primary  meaning.  The  other  meanings  follow  in  strictly 
numerical  order. 

The  order  followed  by  Webster  and  other  lexicographers 
of  the  English  language  is  wholly  different  from  this ;  and 
with  the  facts  in  each  case  every  teacher  should  be  familiar. 
Webster's  order  of  meanings  is  historical.  The  first  meaning 
which  he  assigns  to  a  word  is  the  meaning  which  it  origi- 
nally possessed,  even  though  that  be  now  obsolete  or  obso- 
lescent. Formerly,  the  word  prevent  meant,  simply,  to  go 
before,  or  to  precede ;  and  it  was  natural  for  one  to  say,  "  I 
will  rise  early  to-morrow,  to  prevent  the  rising  of  sun." 
Probably  the  original  meaning  of  sincere  was  without  wax. 
The  word  was  perhaps  used  at  first  to  describe  honey  that 
was  pure  and  unadulterated.  The  original  meaning  of  tran- 
spire was  to  sweat.  The  original  meaning  of  starve  was, 
simply,  to  die,  or  perish  (from  whatever  cause).  There  are 
not  a  few  teachers  who  look  to  the  first-given  meaning  of  a 
word  for  the  most  general  meaning  in  the  usage  of  the 
present  day. 

Syllabication.  —  Syllabication  is  another  matter  in  which 
Webster  followed  an  independent  course.  The  sub j  ect  should 
be  understood  by  all  writers,  for,  by  our  universal  rule,  words 
divided  at  the  end  of  a  line  must  be  so  divided  that  their 
syllables  shall  remain  entire. 

represented  a  gutteral  sound  which  was  characteristic  of  the  Germanic 
races,  but  which  has  been  eliminated  from  our  speech.  The  silent  letters 
contained  in  a  word  generally  indicate  its  origin,  and  are  often  of  great 
value  to  philologists.  There  is  no  question,  however,  that  we  might  judi- 
ciously dispense  with  more  of  these  than  were  dropped  in  the  reforms  of 
Noah  Webster. 


THE  DICTIONARY,   AND  HOW  TO   USE  IT       153 

In  respect  to  syllabication,  Webster  differs  from  British 
orthographers.  He  forms  a  syllable  of  the  sounds  which  are 
uttered  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice.  Our  British  cousins 
are  apt  to  have  more  regard  for  the  etymology  of  the  word 
in  their  syllabication.  Thus  they  write  ov-ate  where  we 
write  o-vate.  The  word  comes  from  the  Latin  root  ov,  an  egg ; 
and  the  British  syllabication  takes  this  fact  into  account ; 
whereas  our  own  (according  to  Webster)  has  regard  only  for 
the  impulse  of  the  voice  in  pronouncing  it.  At  the  same 
time,  it  must  be  said  that  Webster  does  not  wholly  disregard 
etymologies  in  his  system  of  syllabication. 

"  Since  the  intent  and  purpose  of  written  words  is  to  repre- 
sent speech,"  says  the  International  Dictionary,  "there  is 
really  no  good  reason  for  allowing  etymology  to  control  syl- 
labic division,  in  ordinary  writing  and  print,  in  any  other 
way  than  indirectly  through  its  influence  on  the  customary 
pronunciation." 

Origin  and  History  of  Words.  —  The  etymologies  of  words 
are  subjects  of  great  interest,  and  without  them  the  value 
and  force  of  many  expressions  are  not  fully  appreciated. 
Many  of  our  most  expressive  words  come  to  us  from  the 
folk  stories  of  past  generations.  One  who  is  familiar  with 
the  story  of  the  boastful  and  bellicose  Hector  will  appreciate 
the  meaning  of  the  word  hectoring.  The  student  who  has 
read  the  Iliad,  and  remembers  the  trumpet-voiced  herald 
named  Stentor,  will  readily  catch  the  meaning  of  the  word 
stentorian.  One  who  has  read  of  Procrustes  (who  laid  his 
victims  on  his  fatal  bed,  and  either  cut  off  their  limbs  or 
stretched  them  by  horrible  tension,  so  as  to  make  all  fit  to 
his  measure)  will  note  at  a  glance  the  meaning  of  the  word 
procrustean. 

In  like  manner  we  derive  the  words  shibboleth,  palladium, 
mausoleum,  iridescent,  etc.,  from  the  folklore  of  the  ancients'. 
The  folklore  of  the  modern  world  is  not  less  prolific  of 
expressive  words.  In  our  political  vocabulary  we  find  such 
terms  as  gerrymander,  logrolling,  pipdaying,  lobbying,  bun- 


154  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

combe,  not  to  speak  of  such  partisan  epithets  as  carpet- 
bagger and  copperhead.  The  force  and  application  of  these 
terms  can  be  learned  only  by  an  acquaintance  with  their 
origin.  Never  before  has  folklore  been  so  highly  esteemed 
by  scholars  as  at  the  present  time. 

The  etymologies  of  the  most  ordinary  words  are  exceed- 
ingly interesting;  and  when  any  word  is  studied  in  the 
dictionary,  its  origin  and  history  should  receive  careful  con- 
sideration. Our  words  that  are  derived  from  the  Norman 
French  can  be  traced,  generally,  through  their  parent  words 
to  the  more  ancient  Latin,  from  which  the  Norman  French, 
in  its  turn,  was  principally  derived.  Take  the  common 
expression,  "  Yes,  Ma'am"  The  ma'am  is  a  shorter  form 
of  the  English  madam.  The  latter  is  derived  from  the  Old 
French  madame,  which,  in  its  turn,  leads  back  to  the  Latin 
mea  domina  (my  lady). 

On  the  other  hand,  our  words  which  come  to  us  through 
the  Anglo-Saxon  (or  Old  English,  as  it  is  now  largely  called) 
may  be  traced  usually  to  the  more  ancient  Germanic  root 
words.  The  word  starve  comes  to  us  from  the  Anglo-Saxon 
steorban,  which  is  allied  to  the  German  sterben  (to  die).  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  words  are  much  stronger 
in  their  meaning  than  their  synonyms  which  are  derived 
from  the  Norman  French ;  thus  love  is  stronger  than  affec- 
tion, fear  is  stronger  than  apprehension,  anger  is  stronger 
than  resentment,  etc. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  common  terminations 
derived  from  the  Saxon  words  (such  as  ness  in  goodness, 
kindness,  etc.,  and  ly  in  goodly,  kindly,  etc.)  are  used  almost 
exclusively  with  words  derived  from  the  same  source.  In 
like  manner,  the  common  endings  which  we  derive  from  the 
Norman  French  (such  as  ty  in  urbanity,  rapidity,  etc.,  and 
tion  in  creation,  preparation,  etc.)  are  used  almost  exclusively 
with  words  from  the  same  source. 

A  hybrid  word  made  up  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  word  and  a 
Norman  French  ending  was  for  centuries  a  thing  unknown. 


THE  DICTIONARY,  AND  HOW  TO   USE  IT       155 

A  few  of  these  have  crept  into  our  language  within  the  past 
century.  At  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  an  English 
statesman  named  Henry  Dundas,  afterwards  Lord  Melville, 
made  a  speech  in  Parliament  on  American  affairs,  in  which 
he  was  so  carried  away  by  his  excitement  that  he  used  the 
then  absurd  expression  starvation.  Nothing  could  have 
exceeded  the  ludicrousness  of  the  expression.  It  was  as 
though  he  had  cautioned  his  hearers  against  the  figlit-ation 
of  the  Americans,  or  had  provided  for  the  eat-ation  of  the 
British  army.  In  the  laugh  that  went  round  the  world,  the 
word  starvation  was  applied  as  a  nickname  to  the  luckless 
speaker,  who  has  gone  down  in  history,  not  as  Lord  Melville, 
but  as  "  Starvation  "  Dundas.  Because  of  its  frequent  use 
in  succeeding  years,  the  word  has  ceased  to  seem  incongruous 
or  absurd ;  yet  it  serves  as  a  caution  to  careless  speakers  not 
to  coin  new  words  unthinkingly  by  the  joining  of  incompat- 
ible elements  of  language. 

Scripture  Proper  Names.  —  The  dictionary  contains  the 
proper  names  of  Scripture,  with  the  pronunciation  of  each. 
Assuredly,  every  teacher  should  be  able  to  read  the  Bible 
correctly.  The  Scripture  names  are  to  be  pronounced  with- 
out any  foreign  affectation,  in  the  broad,  clear  English,  as 
indicated.  One  may  find  fault  with  the  fact  that  Jairus  is 
pronounced  in  one  way  as  it  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament 
and  in  another  way  as  it  appears  in  the  New  Testament,  and 
he  may  object  to  the  pronunciation  of  Alexandria  and  Phila- 
delphia l  with  the  accent  on  the  penult,  as  contrary  to  modern 
usage ;  yet  it  is  best  to  follow  the  authorities  in  these  as  in 
other  matters. 

Foreign  Phrases.  —  The  dictionaries  (Webster's  Interna- 
tional, and  also  the  Unabridged  which  bears  his  name)  con- 
tain a  long  list  of  foreign  phrases  which  are  largely  used  by 


1  In  reading  the  Bible  it  is  not  improper  to  give  these  geographical  names 
their  ordinary  English  pronunciation.  The  classical  pronunciation,  how- 
ever, is  preferred  by  many  for  Scripture  readings,  and  there  are  strong 
arguments  in  its  favor. 


SCHOOL  anammsrs  ASTD 


It  is  often  objected  that  the  use  of  such 
of  pedantry,  and  should  he  discouraged. 
Aianm  an  m*fd  to  a  large  eitont. 
express  ideas  relating  to  law  and  to  other 
Many  aie  exceeding  feficitous  as  adages.    It 

_"„-»—     *,-*-..  _  *,  .  ,    .  , ...          -  * 

mey  jiMi«|g  VD  UK  gmm  ™BF  "•%  11  IBBIHE  rM"*  ui 
Where  they  are  used  at  all,  they  should  he  used 


Probably  it  is  a  good  rale  to  make  use  of  foreign 
JDS  only  in  the  eases  in  which  there  are  no  English 
win  answer  the  purpose  as  welL    However,  the  writers 
we  read  do  not  always  follow  this  rale;  and  if 
any  use  of  the  foreign  words  and  phrases 
which  writers  employ,  it  is  absurd  to  attempt  to  apply 

the  pupil  should  consult  the  dictionary  list  for 

CM  jpiMi  Cfirwcnfi  nhrasEs  ami  "proverbs  as  *?A**^A 
under  their  observation,  for  many  of  these  are  certain  to 
belong  to  the  universal  language  of  the  future. 


come  orer  the  world  of  learned  men  in  respect  of  folklore. 
What  was  at  one  time  brushed  away  with  impatience  as 
fhiliiifth  -fkhift  is  now  tenderly  cherished  as  a  memorial  of 
hrananity  s  childhood.  The  stories  of  Cinderella.  Jack  tke 
Giant  KSUar,  etc.,  are  now  accepted  as  a  Talnable  legacy. 
These  stories  are  utilized  by  mndgrn  educators  in  the  school- 
room, and  the  Yalue  of  folk  tales  is  appreciated,  by  the  most 
learned. 

The  Dictionary  of  Fiction,  is  a  Yery  important  part  of 
Webster's  dictionaries.  To  it  reference  should  be  made  for 
the  elucidation  of  every  allusion  to  characters  of  fiction  and 
folklore  that  may  be  encountered  in  the  reading  of  the  schooL 
The  characters  of  Dickens,  by  themselves,  are  sufficient  in 
number  to  populate  a  respectable  town;  and  as  Dickens  wrote 


THE  DICttOXAXY,  AMD  HOW  JO  im  JT      157 


y  is  it*  Hst  of 

^-1.  ~^~-.  -_-.-  --.- 
and  a 


158  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

and  is  to  be  pronounced  as  though  the  word  were  written 
out  in  full.  The  fact  that  it  is  an  abbreviation  is  indicated 
by  the  period.  Can't  is  a  contraction,  and  this  fact  is  indi- 
cated by  the  use  of  the  apostrophe;  not  only  are  certain 
letters  omitted,  but  their  sounds  are  wanting  as  well.  Nos. 
(and  not  No's)  is  the  abbreviation  for  numbers.  Bros,  (and 
not  Bro's)  is  the  abbreviation  for  the  word  brothers.  Sam'l 
is  a  contraction  indicating  a  slipshod  colloquial  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  name.  Fred,  is  an  abbreviation  for  Frederick, 
and  is  to  be  pronounced  as  though  the  word  were  written  in 
full ;  while  Fred  is  simply  a  short  form  of  the  name,  and  is 
to  be  pronounced  as  written. 

Classed  with  the  abbreviations  are  certain  substitutions 
which  are  often  puzzling  to  teachers.  In  ancient  inscrip- 
tions we  frequently  find  ye  for  the,  and  the  unwary  pro- 
nounce the  word  as  though  it  were  the  pronoun  ye.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  y  is  simply  substituted  for  the  form  of  the 
ancient  Anglo-Saxon  th,  which  bore  a  resemblance  to  this  let- 
ter, and  which  long  lingered  in  English  literature.  In  the  ab- 
breviations for  ounce  and  videlicet  (respectively,  oz.  and  viz.), 
the  teacher  is  often  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  use  of  the 
letter  z,  since  it  does  not  appear  in  either  word.  The  fact 
is  this :  The  letter  is  here  substituted  for  an  ancient  sign  of 
abbreviation,  which  bore  some  resemblance  to  it.  This  sign 
was  formerly  placed  after  the  o  and  the  vi  in  the  words 
mentioned  above.  Subsequently,  the  period  was  used  in 
the  abbreviations,  and  generally  replaced  the  old  mark.  As 
a  result  of  carelessness  on  the  part  of  former  teachers  and 
printers,  we  have  illogically  retained  in  these  words  both 
signs  of  abbreviation. 

Pronunciation.  —  Every  teacher  is  presumably  acquainted 
with  the  nature  and  use  of  diacritical  marks  to  indicate  the 
correct  pronunciation  of  words;  yet  there  are  very  many 
teachers  who  have  not  made  a  sufficiently  thorough  investi- 
gation of  the  subject  of  pronunciation.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  same  letter  does  not  always  have  exactly  the 


THE  DICTIONARY,   AND  HOW  TO   USE  IT       159 

same  sound  in  different  words,  even  though  it  have  the  same 
diacritical  mark. 

To  illustrate :  the  o  in  the  word  hot  has  not  exactly  the 
sound  of  the  same  letter  in  the  word  dog,  though  the  vowel 
is  marked  alike  in  both  cases.  The  vowel  in  the  word  the 
is  pronounced  in  three  different  ways,  according  to  the  way 
it  is  used  —  by  itself,  before  another  word  commencing 
with  a  vowel,  or  before  another  word  commencing  with  a 
consonant. 

In  larger  dictionaries,  the  subject  of  pronunciation  is 
fully  discussed,  each  letter  being  considered  separately. 
With  the  lexicographer's  exposition  of  the  subject  the 
teacher  should  be  thoroughly  familiar,  for  pronunciation  is 
a  matter  which  he  cannot  avoid  or  postpone.  It  is  a  subject 
which  enters  into  every  utterance  of  his  own  and  into  every 
word  spoken  by  his  pupils.  He  who  carefully  canvasses  the 
entire  subject  of  pronunciation,  preparatory  to  teaching,  will 
be  relieved  of  innumerable  difficulties  which  will  otherwise 
confront  him. 

History  of  the  English  Language.  —  The  larger  dictionaries 
contain,  generally,  a  history  of  the  development  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  from  the  Anglo-Saxon,  describing  its  acces- 
sions from  the  Celtic  speech  and  those  resulting  from  the 
Danish  and  Norman  invasions  of  England,  and  exhibiting 
specimens  of  English  compositions  of  various  periods,  to 
mark  the  transitions  to  the  English  of  our  own  day.  The 
history  of  the  growth  of  the  language  is  valuable  to  every 
teacher  and  every  high  school  pupil,  yet  there  are  very 
many  such  who  have  not  availed  themselves  of  it. 

The  illustrations  of  the  larger  dictionaries  may  be  made 
very  useful  in  teaching  the  sciences,  especially  botany  and 
zoology,  for  they  represent  a  great  number  of  interesting 
species  in  the  vegetable  and  the  animal  world. 

The  Choice  of  a  Dictionary.  —  Webster's  International  Dic- 
tionary is  the  latest  edition  of  the  work  of  America's  great- 
est lexicographer.  It  contains  the  definitions  of  140,000 


160  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

words.  Whatever  other  dictionaries  a  school  may  possess, 
this  should  be  procured  and  constantly  used. 

Webster's  Pictorial  Dictionary  contains  a  glossary  of  Scot- 
tish words.  Since  the  reading  of  Scottish  authors  of  prose 
and  verse  is  becoming  more  general  from  year  to  year,  this 
feature  of  the  volume  is  more  important  than  it  was  formerly. 

A  cyclopedia  is  a  larger  and  more  generalized  form  of 
dictionary,  and  is  exceedingly  valuable  as  an  appointment 
of  the  schoolroom.  Formerly  the  cost  of  cyclopedias  proved 
an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  their  very  general  use  in  the 
smaller  schools.  The  multiplication  of  cheaper  books  of  this 
class  has  led  to  a  vast  extension  of  the  use  of  such  reference 
books,  and  probably  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the 
country  schools  will  generally  include  a  cyclopedia  in  their 
furnishings. 

Gazetteers,  atlases,  biographical  dictionaries,  The  Dickens 
Dictionary,  botanical  floras,  books  of  synonyms,  etc.,  are  valu- 
able adjuncts  to  the  working  materials  of  schools,  and  are 
especially  valuable  in  high  schools. 

Whatever  dictionary,  cyclopedia,  or  other  books  of  refer- 
ence may  be  procured,  care  should  be  exercised  to  secure  the 
latest  editions.  The  language  is  growing  rapidly,  and  new 
terms  of  special  interest  to  the  educated  are  constantly  ap- 
pearing. Meanwhile,  old  words  are  changing  their  forms, 
to  some  extent.  Bat  a  few  years  ago  the  words  schoolhouse, 
schoolbook,  schoolmaster,  newspaper,  and  many  others  which 
are  now  consolidated  were  written  with  hyphens.  Errors  in 
the  old  editions  are  corrected  in  the  new. 

The  demand  of  the  day  in  education  is  for  men  and  women 
who  are  representative  of  modern  progress  —  who  "  keep  up 
with  the  times." 

So  vast  is  the  influence  of  the  dictionary  upon  the  work 
of  the  school,  and  so  great  is  its  value  as  a  force  —  at  once 
conservative  and  progressive  —  in  language  and  in  literature, 
that  the  true  teacher  is  not  likely  to  overestimate  the  impor- 
tance of  its  constant  and  enlightened  use. 


SCHOOL   LIBRARIES 
SCHOOL  MORALS 


SCH.    IXT.   &    BUT. 11 


CHAPTER   VIII 
SCHOOL  LIBRARIES 

The  Influence  of  Unwholesome  Literature/ —  Teachers  who 
were  fond  of  reading  Gail  Hamilton's  pungent  books  of  an 
earlier  decade  will  remember  her  stinging  criticism  of  a 
class  of  literature  prepared  for  young  readers.  The  books 
which  she  held  up  to  ridicule  were  written  with  the  purest 
motives,  and  were  purchased  with  money  that  was  conse- 
crated to  the  loftiest  purposes;  for  her  "skirmish"  was 
directed  against  the  pernicious  elements  in  Sunday-school 
literature.  Skirmishes  and  Sketches  exerted  so  strong  an 
influence  upon  the  popular  judgment  of  general  literature, 
and  is  so  apposite  to  the  subject  of  school  libraries,  that  a 
few  quotations  from  it  will  serve  as  an  introduction  to  this 
chapter : 

"I  mean,"  says  Gail  Hamilton,  "the  avalanche  of  silly 
books  which  is  continually  sliding  down  upon  the  young 
mind,  and  which  threatens  to  bury  all  vigor,  all  intelli- 
gence, all  intellectual  activity,  under  a  mass  of  stilted,  sen- 
timental nonsense. 

"  We  often  hear  and  read  ecclesiastical  deprecation  of  novel 
reading,  but  do  our  Christian  parents  know  that  their  chil- 
dren are  surfeiting  themselves  at  the  Sunday-school  libraries 
with  weak  and  worthless  novels  ?  If  false  views  of  life,  if 
unnatural  representations  of  character,  if  appeals  to  passion 
and  vanity,  if  melodramatic  scenes  and  sensational  incidents 
make  novels  pernicious  reading  for  the  young,  then  are  our 
Sunday-school  libraries  dealing  out  pernicious  reading.  How 

163 


164  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

long  tliis  evil  has  been  in  existence  I  do  not  know,  but  it 
seems  to  be  at  full  tide  now. 

"  I  have  looked  over  an  old  catalogue  of  a  Sunday-school 
library,  collected  about  sixteen  years  ago,  and  compared  it 
with  catalogues  of  several  late  collections.  Judging  merely 
from  the  titles,  the  books  of  the  old  library  are  of  a  far 
higher  class  than  those  of  the  new.  .  .  . 

"  In  the  modern  catalogues,  I  look  in  vain  for  books  of 
similar  substance.  The  greater  number  are  pathetic  stories 
of  little  girls  who  died  and  who  ought  never  to  have  lived ; 
scaring  stories  of  little  boys  who  went  to  a  circus,  and 
thence  by  short  and  easy  stages  to  the  state  prison;  .  .  . 
thrilling  stories  of  pious  lads  who  rush  through  ridicule, 
persuasion,  and  sundry  forms  of  opposition,  converting  all 
before  them. 

"  The  story,  as  a  form  of  entertainment  or  instruction,  has 
its  appointed  place,  and  is  open  to  no  objection;  but  such 
stories  as  run  riot  through  our  Sunday-school  literature  are 
neither  sweet  to  the  taste  nor  to  be  desired  to  make  one  wise. 
They  do  not  appeal  to  the  imagination,  nor  to  the  conscious- 
ness, scarcely  at  all  to  the  conscience,  nor  to  any  faculty  of 
the  soul,  save  a  languid  curiosity  or  a  morbid  craving  for 
sentiment.  Their  work  is  doubly  harmful." 

Timely  and  deserved  as  this  criticism  was,  there  existed 
at  the  same  time  more  urgent  need  for  a  reform  in  the  liter- 
ature of  the  street,  which  exerted  a  baleful  influence  upon  a 
vastly  greater  number  of  young  people  than  were  likely  to 
be  injured  by  morbid  Sunday-school  books. 

In  the  cities,  especially,  a  flood  of  demoralizing  prints 
was  poured  forth  to  corrupt  the  minds  and  hearts  of  boys. 
Probably  in  no  other  country  of  the  world  was  this  evil  so 
great  as  in  the  United  States,  where  the  art  of  reading  is 
universally  acquired,  and  where  no  system  of  press  censor- 
ship exists. 

Teachers  of  the  public  schools  were  not  slow  to  observe 
the  influence  of  unwholesome  literature  upon  their  pupils. 


SCHOOL  LIBRARIES  165 

For  a  long  period,  however,  the  matter  of  the  child's  general 
reading  was  deemed  a  subject  of  parental  care  and  responsi- 
bility exclusively,  and  teachers,  as  a  rule,  took  no  active 
interest  in  measures  of  reform  in  reference  to  it. 

The  effects  of  such  reading  became  so  noticeable  that  the 
attention  of  the  public  was  generally  drawn  to  the  danger 
of  literature  of  this  class.  In  various  cities  were  unearthed 
dens  of  youthful  depravity  in  vacated  cellars  and  garrets  — 
the  rendezvous  of  young  criminals  who  were  often  children 
of  respectable  families,  and  were  led  away  by  the  glamour 
with  which  pernicious  literature  invested  criminal  lives. 
Kailway  conductors  began  to  report  numerous  cases  of 
young  runaways  who  had  started  to  the  West  to  kill 
Indians.  Crazed  boys  wandered  about  the  streets,  hatless 
and  forlorn,  and  able  only  to  say,  in  response  to  inquiries, 
"  I  am  Willie,  the  Boy  Detective,"  or  "  I  am  the  Terror  of 
the  Plains." 

Prof.  William  G.  Sumner,  of  Yale  University,  was  led  to 
make  an  investigation  of  the  subject,  and  prepared  a  paper 
which  stated  forcibly  the  danger  and  prevalence  of  the 
pernicious  stuff  which  passed  for  juvenile  literature.  The 
paper  was  published  in  Scribner>s  Monthly,  and  attracted 
general  attention.  So  able  was  this  exposition  of  the  evil, 
and  so  astonishing  were  its  disclosures,  that  the  reader  of 
this  volume  will  welcome  the  reproduction  here  of  extended 
extracts  from  it. 

"  Few  gentlemen  who  have  occasion  to  visit  news  offices," 
said  Professor  Sumner,  "  can  have  failed  to  notice  the  peri- 
odical literature  for  boys,  which  has  been  growing  up  during 
the  last  few  years.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  these 
papers  and  magazines,  and  the  appearance,  from  time  to 
time,  of  new  ones,  which,  to  judge  by  the  pictures,  are 
always  worse  than  the  old,  seem  to  indicate  that  they  find 
a  wide  market.  Moreover,  they  appear  not  only  among 
the  idle  and  vicious  boys  in  great  cities,  but  also  among 
schoolboys  whose  parents  are  careful  about  the  influences 


166  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

brought  to  bear  on  their  children.  No  student  of  social 
phenomena  can  pass  with  neglect  facts  of  this  kind  —  so 
practical  and  so  important  in  their  possible  effects  on 
society. 

"  These  periodicals  contain  stories,  songs,  mock  speeches, 
and  negro  minstrel  dialogues  —  and  nothing  else.  The  lit- 
erary material  is  either  intensely  stupid  or  spiced  to  the 
highest  degree  with  sensation.  The  stories  are  about  hunt- 
ing, Indian  warfare,  California  desperado  life,  pirates,  wild 
sea  adventure,  highwaymen,  crimes  and  horrible  accidents, 
horrors  (tortures  and  snake  stories),  gamblers,  practical  jokes, 
the  life  of  vagabond  boys,  and  the  wild  behavior  of  dissipated 
boys  in  great  cities. 

"  This  catalogue  is  exhaustive.  There  are  no  other  stories. 
The  dialogue  is  short,  sharp,  and  continuous.  It  is  broken 
by  the  minimum  of  description  and  by  no  preaching.  It  is 
almost  entirely  in  slang  of  the  most  exaggerated  kind,  and 
of  every  variety  —  that  of  the  sea,  of  California,  and  of 
the  Bowery ;  of  negroes,  '  Dutchmen/  Yankees,  Chinese,  and 
Indians,  to  say  nothing  of  that  of  a  source  of  the  most 
irregular  and  questionable  occupations  ever  followed  by 
men.  When  the  stories  even  nominally  treat  of  school 
life,  they  say  nothing  of  school  life.  There  is  simply  a  suc- 
cession of  practical  jokes,  mischief,  outrages,  heroic  but  im- 
possible feats,  fighting,  and  horrors,  but  nothing  about  the 
business  of  school,  any  more  than  if  the  house  in  which  the 
boys  live  were  a  summer  boarding  house. 

"  The  sensational  incidents  in  these  stories  are  introduced 
by  force,  apparently  for  the  mere  purpose  of  producing  a 
highly  spiced  mixture. 

"One  type  who  figures  largely  in  these  stories  is  the 
vagabond  boy  in  the  streets  of  a  great  city,  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  or  at  sea.  Sometimes  he  has  some  cleverness  in 
singing  or  dancing  or  ventriloquism  or  negro  acting,  and  he 
gains  a  precarious  living  while  roving  about.  This  vaga- 
bond life  of  adventure  is  represented  as  interesting  and 


SCHOOL  LIB  PARIES  167 

enticing;  and  when  the  hero  rises  from  the  vagabond  life 
to  flash  life,  that  is  represented  as  success. 

"  Respectable  home  life,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  depicted 
at  all,  and  is  only  referred  to  as  stupid  and  below  the  ambi- 
tion of  a  clever  youth.  Industry  and  economy  in  some 
regular  pursuit  or  in  study  are  never  mentioned  at  all. 
Generosity  does  not  consist  even  in  luxurious  expenditure, 
but  in  wasting  money.  The  type  seems  to  be  that  of  the 
gambler,  one  day  <  flush '  and  wasteful,  another  day  ruined 
and  in  misery. 

"These  stories  are  not  markedly  profane,  and  they  are 
not  obscene.  They  are  indescribably  vulgar.  They  repre- 
sent boys  as  engaging  all  the  time  in  the  rowdy  type  of 
drinking.  The  heroes  are  either  swaggering,  vulgar  swells 
of  the  rowdy  style,  or  they  are  in  the  vagabond  mass 
below  the  rowdy  swell.  They  are  continually  associating 
with  criminals,  gamblers,  and  low  people  who  live  by  their 
wits. 

"  The  theater  of  the  stories  is  always  disreputable.  The 
proceedings  and  methods  of  persons  of  the  criminal  and 
disreputable  classes  who  appear  in  the  stories,  are  all  de- 
scribed in  detail.  The  boy  reader  obtains  a  theoretical  and 
literary  acquaintance  with  methods  of  fraud  and  crime. 
Sometimes  drunkenness  is  represented  in  its  disgrace  and 
misery,  but  generally  drinking  is  represented  as  jolly  and 
entertaining,  and  there  is  no  suggestion  that  boys  who  act 
as  the  boys  in  these  stories  do,  ever  have  to  pay  any  penalty 
for  it  in  after  life." 

The  public  protest  against  this  species  of  literature  grew 
rapidly  in  volume.  An  appeal  for  reform  was  issued,  signed 
by  such  eminent  men  as  Noah  Porter,  Theodore  D.  Woolsey, 
Francis  A.  Walker,  Leonard  Bacon,  Francis  Wayland,  and 
others. 

The  eminent  and  statesmanly  Charles  Francis  Adams,  Jr., 
in  an  address  to  the  teachers  of  Quincy,  Mass.,  called  upon 
them  and  their  fellow-workers  to  interest  themselves  in 


168  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

securing  a  remedy  for  this  great  evil  of  the  time.  Said  Mr. 
Adams : 

"  It  is  the  fault  of  a  system  which  brings  a  community  up 
in  the  idea  that  a  poor  knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  read- 
ing, writing,  and  arithmetic  constitutes  in  itself  an  educa- 
tion. Now,  on  the  contrary,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  true 
object  of  all  your  labors  as  real  teachers,  if,  indeed,  you  are 
such,  —  the  great  end  of  the  common  school  system,  —  is 
something  more  than  to  teach  children  to  read ;  it  should, 
if  it  is  to  accomplish  its  full  mission,  also  impart  to  them  a 
love  of  reading. 

"  A  man  or  woman  whom  a  whole  childhood  spent  in  the 
common  schools  has  made  able  to  stumble  through  a  news- 
paper or  to  labor  through  a  few  trashy  books  is  scarcely 
better  off  than  one  who  cannot  read  at  all.  Indeed,  I  doubt 
if  he  or  she  is  as  well  off;  for  it  has  long  been  observed  that 
a  very  small  degree  of  book  knowledge  almost  universally 
takes  a  depraved  shape.  .  .  . 

"As  far  as  I  can  judge,  we  teach  our  children  the  mechan- 
ical part  of  reading,  and  then  turn  them  loose  to  take  their 
chances.  If  the  child  has  naturally  an  inquiring  or  imagina- 
tive mind,  he  perchance  may  work  his  way  unaided  through 
the  traps  and  pitfalls  of  literature ;  but  the  chances  seem  to 
me  to  be  terribly  against  him.  Yet,  here  on  the  threshold 
of  this  vast  field  —  you  might  even  call  it  this  wilderness  — 
of  general  literature,  full  as  it  is  of  holes  and  bogs  and  pit- 
falls all  covered  over  with  poisonous  plants,  here  it  is  that 
our  common  school  system  brings  our  children,  and,  having 
brought  them  here,  it  leaves  them  to  go  on  or  not,  just  as 
they  please ;  or,  if  they  do  go  on,  they  are  to  find  their 
own  way  or  to  lose  it,  as  it  may  chance.  I  think  this  is  all 
wrong.  Our  educational  system  stops  just  where  its  assist- 
ance might  be  made  invaluable;  just  where  it  passes  out  of 
the  mechanical,  and  touches  the  individual;  just  where 
instruction  ceases  to  be  a  drudgery,  and  becomes  a  source  of 
pleasure." 


SCHOOL   LIBRARIES  169 

The  Influence  of  Good  Literature. — Prof.  Kobert  C.  Met- 
calf,  of  Boston,  proposed  to  the  teachers  of  that  city  a  prac- 
tical plan  for  the  direction  of  the  pupils  in  their  reading. 
He  said : 

"  How,  then,  shall  we  so  connect  the  public  school  with 
the  public  press  and  the  public  library  that  the  pupil  can, 
to  the  best  advantage,  secure  the  benefits  of  each  ? 

"Our  scholars  will  read;  there  is  no  doubt  at  all  about 
that.  It  only  remains  for  us  to  direct  their  reading  so  as  to 
reach  and  secure  what  is  good  and  avoid  all  that  is  bad. 
The  teachers  should  require  all  pupils  above  the  age  of  ten 
years  to  own  a  notebook  in  which  shall  be  recorded,  from 
time  to  time,  the  names  of  all  books  that  might  be  read  with 
profit  in  connection  with  the  subjects  taught  in  the  school- 
room. A  lesson  in  geography  might  suggest  The  Swiss 
Family  Robinson  or  Robinson  Crusoe;  a  lesson  in  history, 
Tlie  Days  of  Bruce  or  some  of  Scott's  novels ;  a  lesson  in 
reading  would  perhaps  suggest  Stellar  Worlds  or  some  inter- 
esting biography. 

"  Thus  in  a  few  years  the  child  has  had  his  attention  called 
to  many  good  books  of  real  value,  because  they  throw  a  flood 
of  light  upon,  and  add  a  deal  of  interest  to,  subjects  of  actual 
study  in  his  school.  But  more  than  this  should  be  done, 
especially  in  the  higher  classes.  The  teacher  should  require 
every  pupil  to  make  a  weekly  report  of  his  reading,  to  be 
recorded  in  a  book  kept  for  this  special  purpose,  in  which 
the  pupils'  names  should  be  arranged  alphabetically,  with 
the  necessary  space  for  each  child. 

"Such  an  inspection  and  record  of  the  reading  of  a  class 
will  work  a  wonderful  change  in  its  character,  even  in  the 
space  of  one  short  year ;  and  if  systematically  followed  up 
for  a  term  of  years,  by  a  capable  teacher,  I  believe  it  would 
render  much  more  satisfactory  the  later  work,  when  the 
children  become  men  and  women." 

Dr.  James  H.  Smart,  the  eminent  Indiana  educator,  pub- 
lished in  1880  a  pamphlet  on  Books  and  Reading  for  the 


170  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Young,  in  which  he  made  use  of  much  that  has  been  quoted 
in  the  preceding  pages  of  this  chapter.  The  pamphlet  was 
a  reprint  from  the  author's  official  report,  as  State  Superin- 
tendent of  Public  Instruction;  for  to  an  improvement  in 
the  choice  of  reading  for  the  school  children  of  Indiana  he 
had  devoted  his  superior  abilities  as  an  investigator  and 
organizer. 

If  one  would  seek  to  learn  the  result  of  such  efforts  in 
that  State,  let  him  know  that  there  are  now  enrolled  in 
Indiana  about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand  mem- 
bers of  the  Pupils'  Eeading  Circle,  and  that  pure  and 
wholesome  literature  is  supplied  in  abundance  through  the 
multitude  of  libraries  to  which  pupils  have  free  access. 

Need  for  School  Libraries. — As  to  the  manner  in  which 
school  libraries  can  be  procured,  the  diversity  of  laws  in 
the  various  States  renders  it  difficult  to  make  specific  sug- 
gestions of  a  very  general  application.  This,  however,  can 
be  said :  Every  teacher  or  superintendent  can  interest  him- 
self in  seeing  that  the  existing  legal  provisions  for  the 
supply  of  library  books  are  applied  in  his  district  or  county 
or  city. 

The  fact  that  there  is  an  excellent  township,  city,  or  dis- 
trict library  maintained  independently  of  the  school  does 
not  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  a  school  library  of  some 
sort,  though  it  may  modify  the  needs  of  the  school  in  this 
respect,  and  prove  of  great  value  to  teachers  and  pupils. 
The  school  library  and  the  other  (corporation)  library  may 
be  made  to  supplement  each  other. 

The  need  for  a  school  library  of  some  sort  is  universal. 
In  the  most  humble  schoolhouse  of  a  country  district  there 
should  be  a  bookcase  for  the  care  of  books  that  may  be 
donated  to  the  school,  and  for  the  preservation  of  unclaimed 
text-books  that  may  be  left  in  the  building.  Books  which 
are  donated  to  schools  by  publishers,  authors,  and  others  are 
often  lost  to  the  schools  through  carelessness  as  to  the  proper 
disposition  to  be  made  of  them.  It  is  a  lamentable  fact  that 


SCHOOL  LIBEAEIES  171 

very  many  persons  who  are  estimable  in  their  general  char- 
acter have  an  easy  conscience  in  the  matter  of  books  that 
"  come  easy  "  to  the  school ;  and  many  teachers  have  been 
careless  as  to  the  final  disposition  of  publications  presented 
to  them  in  trust  for  the  benefit  of  the  schools  under  their 
charge. 

The  teacher  who  secures  the  nucleus  of  a  library,  and  takes 
care  that  the  books  which  come  into  the  possession  of  the 
school  are  suitably  stamped  or  marked  to  indicate  such 
ownership,  will  generally  have  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
that  nucleus  expand. 

Certainly  one  rare  and  notable  opportunity  has  been  very 
generally  neglected.  Within  the  past  fifteen  years  the 
Bureau  of  Education  at  Washington  has  been  distributing 
large  editions  of  well-printed  Circulars  of  Information  on  a 
variety  of  subjects  of  the  greatest  interest  and  value  to 
teachers,  school  officers,  and  students. 

These  pamphlets  are  very  rarely  reprinted,  and  when  the 
original  supply  is  exhausted  they  are  not  to  be  had  at  any 
price.  They  should  have  been  collected  by  teachers  and 
superintendents,  and  bound  for  permanent  preservation  — 
for,  while  in  pamphlet  form  they  are  tolerably  durable, 
there  are  very  many  people  who  are  prone  to  rate  the  value 
of  a  publication  according  to  the  expensiveness  of  its  cover, 
and  who  see  little  value  in  an  old  official  pamphlet.  Chil- 
dren and  janitors  are  by  no  means  free  from  this  tendency. 
As  a  result,  the  number  of  files  of  Circulars  of  Information 
in  existence  at  this  time  is  very  small.  A  teacher  who  looks 
over  the  list  of  the  Circulars  of  Information  which  have  been 
issued  from  the  Bureau  cannot  but  feel  a  longing  to  have 
access  to  such  a  library,  covering,  as  it  does,  a  hundred 
points  of  educational  interest  in  the  modes  of  teaching, 
school  supervision,  school  architecture  and  sanitation,  school 
law,  school  recreations,  etc. 

The  best  way  in  which  to  secure  the  permanent  preserva- 
tion of  a  pamphlet  —  or,  rather,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  in 


172  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

order  to  secure  it  —  is  to  have  it  durably  and  handsomely 
bound.  The  expense  of  binding  books  is  small  —  especially 
where,  as  in  the  case  described,  a  number  may  be  bound 
together. 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten.  —  One  of  the  Circulars  of 
Information  is  receiving  very  general  attention  at  this  time. 
This  is  the  famous  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten.  On  the 
subject  of  English,  considered  as  a  branch  of  study,  the 
Report  contains  the  following  practical  suggestions : 

"  Prom  the  beginning  of  the  third  year  at  school,  the  pupil 
should  be  required  to  supplement  his  regular  reading-book 
with  other  reading-matter  of  a  distinctly  literary  kind.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  seventh  school  year  the  reading  book  may 
be  discarded,  and  the  pupil  should  henceforth  read  literature, 
—  prose  and  narrative  poetry  in  about  equal  parts.  Com- 
plete works  should  usually  be  studied.  When  extracts  must 
be  resorted  to,  these  should  be  long  enough  to  possess  a  unity 
of  their  own  and  to  serve  as  a  fair  specimen  of  an  author's 
style  and  method.  .  .  . 

"  The  study  of  literature  and  training  in  the  expression 
of  thought,  taken  together,  are  the  fundamental  elements  in 
any  proper  high  school  course  in  English,  and  demand  not 
merely  the  largest  share  of  time  and  attention,  but  continuous 
and  concurrent  treatment  throughout  the  four  years.  The 
Conference  therefore  recommends  the  assignment  of  three 
hours  a  week  for  four  years  (or  480  hours  in  the  total)  to  the 
study  of  literature,  and  the  assignment  of  two  hours  a  week 
for  the  first  two  years,  and  one  hour  a  week  for  the  last  two 
years  (or  240  hours  in  the  total)  to  training  in  composition. 
By  the  study  of  literature  the  Conference  means  the  study 
of  the  works  of  good  authors,  not  the  study  of  a  manual  of 
literary  history.  .  .  . 

"  The  history  of  English  literature  should  be  taught  inci- 
dentally, in  connection  with  the  pupil's  study  of  particular 
authors  and  works ;  the  mechanical  use  of  ( manuals  of  lit- 
erature '  should  be  avoided,  and  the  committing  to  memory 


SCHOOL  LIB  PARIES  173 

of  names  and  dates  should  not  be  mistaken  for  culture.  In 
the  fourth  year,  however,  an  attempt  may  be  made,  by  means 
of  lectures  or  otherwise,  to  give  the  pupil  a  view  of  our 
literature  as  a  whole,  and  to  acquaint  him  with  the  relations 
between  periods.  This  instruction  should  accompany  —  not 
supersede  —  a  chronologically  arranged  sequence  of  authors. 
In  connection  with  it  a  syllabus  or  brief  primer  may  be 
used.  .  .  . 

"The  specific  recommendations  of  the  Conference  as  to 
English  requirements  for  admission  to  colleges  and  scientific 
schools  are  the  following : 

"  1.  That  the  reading  of  certain  masterpieces  of  English 
literature,  not  fewer  in  number  than  those  at  present  assigned 
by  the  Commission  of  New  England  Colleges,  should  be 
required. 

"  2.  Each  of  these  should  be  so  far  as  possible  representa- 
tive of  some  period,  tendency,  or  type  of  literature,  in  order 
that  alternative  questions  like  those  suggested  in  paragraph 
No.  5  (below)  may  be  provided.  <  The  whole  number  of  these 
works  selected  for  any  year  should  represent,  with  as  few 
gaps  as  possible,  the  course  of  English  literature  from  the 
Elizabethan  period  to  the  present  time. 

"3.  Of  these  books  a  considerable  number  should  be  of  a 
kind  to  be  read  by  the  student  cursorily,  and  by  himself. 
A  limited  number,  however,  may  be  read  in  the  class  room 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  teacher. 

"  4.  In  connection  with  the  reading  of  all  these  required 
books  the  teacher  should  encourage  parallel  or  subsidiary 
reading  and  the  investigation  of  pertinent  questions  in  liter- 
ary history  and  criticism.  The  faithfulness  with  which  such 
auxiliary  work  is  carried  on  should  be  constantly  tested  by 
means  of  written  and  oral  reports  and  class-room  discussion, 
and  the  same  tests  should  be  applied  to  the  required  books 
read  cursorily  (see  paragraph  No.  3). 

"  5.  The  Conference  doubts  the  wisdom  of  requiring,  for 
admission  to  college,  set  essays  (e.g.  on  the  books  pre- 


174  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

scribed,  as  above,  paragraph  No.  1),  essays  whose  chief  pur- 
pose is  to  test  the  pupil's  ability  to  write  English. 

"  It  is  believed  that  there  are  serious  theoretical  and  prac- 
tical objections  to  estimating  a  student's  power  to  write  a 
language  on  the  basis  of  a  theme  composed  not  for  the  sake 
of  expounding  something  that  he  knows  or  thinks,  but  merely 
for  the  sake  of  showing  his  ability  to  write.  Therefore,  so 
long  as  the  formal  essay  remains  a  part  of  the  admission 
examination,  it  is  recommended  that  questions  on  topics  of 
literary  history  or  criticism,  or  on  passages  cited  from  pre- 
scribed works,  be  set  as  an  alternative." 

Choice  of  Books.  —  This  extract,  which  is  inserted  some- 
what digressively,  will  serve  to  suggest  the  classes  of  books 
for  high  school  pupils  which  is  contemplated  in  the  proposed 
plan  for  a  systematic  study  of  literature  during  the  period  of 
the  high  school  course.  Cheap  and  well-prepared  editions 
of  English  classics  are  now  issued  in  large  numbers  by 
various  publishing  houses,  for  the  use  of  schools.  At  the 
same  time,  carefully  graded  books  for  children  of  the  pri- 
mary and  grammar  departments  of  schools  are  published  in 
great  variety.  To  the  exertions  of  the  teachers  and  school 
officers  of  the  country  is  largely  due  the  vast  change  that 
has  been  wrought  within  the  past  decade  in  the  character  of 
the  general  reading  of  the  boys  and  girls  of  America.  To 
their  continued  efforts  in  this  direction  will  be  due  incalcu- 
lable good  in  the  future. 

The  principal  provinces  of  a  library  are  history,  science, 
and  literature  (using  the  term  in  its  more  restricted  mean- 
ing). Included  under  these  general  divisions  are  biography, 
travel,  the  historical  novel,  the  drama,  poetry,  the  scientific 
treatise,  essays,  literary  criticism,  art  criticism,  romance, 
civil  government,  pedagogics,  sociology,  etc. 

It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  juvenile  books  of  history  are 
much  better  adapted  to  interest  and  instruct  the  young 
readers  than  are  the  great  works  of  the  world's  historians. 
Abbott's  histories  of  Xerxes,  Julius  Caesar,  Hannibal,  Queen 


SCHOOL  LIBEAEIES  175 

Elizabeth,  the  Empress  Josephine,  etc.,  serve  to  awaken  an 
interest  which  will  lead  the  reader  to  appreciate  the  larger, 
more  accurate,  and  more  philosophical  works  of  standard 
historians  on  the  same  subjects.  Both  classes  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  school  library:  A  well-written  juvenile  his- 
tory of  Greece  will  awaken  in  the  pupil  a  desire  to  read 
Grote.  The  Story  of  the  Nations  will  prepare  the  way  for 
an  appreciative  reading  of  Motley,  Prescott,  Irving,  Ban- 
croft, Macaulay,  and  Guizot.  To  be  appreciated  by  the 
young,  and  by  the  public  generally,  books  of  science  must 
be  written  in  popular  form.  Happily  for  the  youths  of  the 
English-speaking  world,  many  of  the  most  eminent  scien- 
tists of  the  present  day  have  shown  themselves  both  willing 
and  able  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  comprehension  of  the 
average  reader,  in  the  popularization  of  scientific  knowledge. 

Condensation  is  a  desideratum  in  this  busy  age,  and  the 
English  "  primers  "  of  science,  literature,  and  art  (so  called 
because  of  their  condensed  form)  will  constitute  a  very  val- 
uable addition  to  any  high  school  library.  Among  these 
"  primers  "  may  be  mentioned  Gladstone's  Homer ;  Dowden's 
ShaJcspeare,  Peile's  Philology,  Fyffe's  History  of  Greece, 
Creighton's  History  of  Rome,  Wendel's  History  of  Egypt, 
Geikie's  Geology,  Lockyer's  Astronomy,  Jevons'  Political 
Economy,  Tighe's  Development  of  the  Roman  Constitution,  etc. 

In  literature,  the  English  classics  for  school  use,  which 
have  been  mentioned  previously,  cover  almost  the  entire 
range  of  standard  English  authors  from  Shakspeare  to  Ten- 
nyson. Compilations  of  literature,  such  as  Shepherd's  His- 
torical Readings,  Skinner's  Readings  in  Folklore  and  TJie 
Schoolmaster  in  Literature,  Swinton's  Studies  in  English 
Literature,  etc.,  present  within  single  volumes  of  convenient 
size  and  moderate  expense  a  wide  range  of  selections. 

Books  of  practical  instruction  on  subjects  relating  to  the 
household  and  on  simple  forms  of  manual  training  should 
belong  to  the  school  library.  Such  are  Household  Economy, 
the  Sewing  Primer,  the  Sloyd  System  of  Woodworking, 


176  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Exercises  in  Woodworking,  Principles  of  Agriculture,  Scien- 
tific Agriculture,  etc. 

As  to  selections  of  books  of  fiction,  Gail  Hamilton's  sug- 
gestions are  pertinent : 

"  The  mind  cannot  long  preserve  its  balance,  if  forced  to 
subsist  on  any  one  kind  of  food ;  how  much  less  if  that  food 
be  largely  adulterated.  If  we  must  have  a  diet  composed 
chiefly  of  sugarplums,  let  us  at  least  have  them  from  estab- 
lished factories,  where  we  may  be  sure  of  a  good  article  of 
its  kind,  and  not  content  ourselves  with  a  sickly  concoction 
of  sugar,  flour,  and  water,  simmered  together  in  a  thousand 
kitchen  kettles.  The  lords  and  ladies  of  Waverley,  the  men 
and  women  of  Thackeray,  Trollope,  Mrs.  Stowe,  Miss  Muloch, 
or  George  Eliot  would  be  a  great  improvement  on  the  inter- 
minable procession  of  Hatties  and  Katies  and  Nellies  and 
Georgies  and  Willies  and  Harries  that  now  mince  their 
missish  ways  over  the  library  shelves. 

"  It  is  said  that  they  (the  children)  will  read  such  books 
as  they  have,  and  others  they  will  not  read.  Of  course  it  is 
of  no  use  to  cumber  our  shelves  with  books  that  will  never 
be  touched.  Little  children  must  have  little  stories,  and 
larger  children  must  have  larger  stories,  and  the  supply  only 
answers  to  the  demand.  But  if  the  argument  holds  good 
with  regard  to  Sunday-school  books,  it  holds  still  better 
with  regard  to  novels. 

"  I  shall,  however,  be  slow  to  believe  that  the  children  of 
Christian  parents  cannot  be  educated  into  higher  tastes.  If 
this  unsubstantial  but  highly  seasoned  food  were  withheld 
from  them,  I  cannot  but  think  they  would  presently  come 
to  a  healthy  appetite.  If  they  turn  away  from  wholesome 
bread  and  butter  and  cry  for  tarts  and  jelly,  let  them  cry 
till  they  are  hungry,  and  then  the  bread  and  butter  will 
have  a  fair  chance  of  being  appreciated." 

In  the  matter  of  the  "little  stories"  for  the  "little  chil- 
dren," public  opinion  has  undergone  a  notable  change  within 
recent  years.  There  have  been,  and  still  are,  many  persons 


SCHOOL   LIBRARIES  177 

who  object  on  conscientious  grounds  to  the  reading  of  fairy 
stories  and  fables  by  young  children;  but  the  number  of 
such  persons  is  far  smaller  now  than  in  years  gone  by. 
Leading  educators  are  almost  unanimous  in  their  opinion  of 
the  value  of  certain  stories  of  this  description  in  the  moral 
training  of  the  little  ones. 

In  his  materials  for  moral  lessons  (see  White's  School 
Management),  Dr.  E.  E.  White  mentions  first  among  his 
"  fairy  and  other  classic  tales "  the  stories  of  Cinderella 
(representing  true  worth)  and  Red  Eiding  Hood  (represent- 
ing obedience  to  parents).  Almost  every  classic  fable  has 
a  strong  and  pointed  significance  which  will  appeal  to  the 
moral  nature  of  the  child.  Thus  the  fable  of  the  lark  and 
the  farmer  illustrates  self-reliance ;  that  of  the  ant  and  the 
grasshopper,  improvidence ;  that  of  the  donkey  in  the  lion's 
skin,  pretension,  etc.  A  large  number  of  fairy  tales  and 
other  stories  should  be  related  by  teachers  to  small  pupils. 
Dr.  White  recommends  that  longer  narratives  of  the  same 
general  description,  such  as  the  stories  of  Hans  Christian 
Andersen  and  of  Grimm,  be  read  by  pupils  at  their  homes. 

It  would  seem  strange  that  any  thoughtful  person  should 
consider  immoral  the  exercise  of  the  God-given  faculty  of 
imagination.  The  harmful  effects  of  dwarfing  the  imagina- 
tion of  children  are  vividly  set  forth  in  the  "  Gradgrind  sys- 
tem" of  education  as  depicted  by  Dickens  in  Hard  Times. 
It  would  be  well,  indeed,  for  every  parent  and  teacher  to  read 
that  work  of  the  great  patron  and  lover  of  childhood. 

Libraries  and  Bookcases. — Where  the  school  collection  of 
books  is  small,  and  is  kept  in  a  room  devoted  to  general 
purposes,  it  should  be  kept  in  a  closed  bookcase  and,  so  far 
as  possible,  secure  from  dust  and  from  dampness. 

For  the  larger  libraries  of  graded  schools,  a  suitable  room 
should  be  set  apart.  The  room  need  not  be  large,  but  it 
should  be  conveniently  located  and  well  appointed.  The 
books  should  be  screened  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 
The  floors  (of  hard  wood,  closely  driven)  should  be  bare 

SCH.  INT.  &  DUT. — 12 


178  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

or  covered  only  with  rugs,  which  can  be  removed  and 
thoroughly  shaken  in  the  open  air.  The  doors  and  windows 
should  shut  closely,  so  as  to  exclude  dust  and  dampness. 

The  bookcases  should  not  be  of  such  a  height  as  to  render 
the  upper  shelves  difficult  of  access.  Short  and  not  very 
wide  bookcases  can  be  arranged  back  to  back,  at  right  angles 
to  the  wall,  along  one  side  of  the  room.  The  opposite  wall 
may  afford  convenient  space  for  the  display  of  historical  and 
scientific  charts,  maps,  etc.,  and  of  suitable  pictures. 

Where  the  room  is  properly  kept,  there  is  no  real  necessity 
for  doors  to  the  bookcases,  and  these  are  apt  to  prove  incon- 
venient and  troublesome.  Whatever  arrangement  be  made 
as  to  the  custodian  of  the  library  —  whether  that  office  be 
assigned  to  a  teacher  or  to  one  of  the  older  pupils  —  only  a 
careful  and  competent  person  should  be  in  charge  of  the  room. 

If  there  is  a  reading  room  for  the  use  of  pupils,  it  should 
generally  be  separate  from  the  apartment  in  which  the  books 
are  contained.  The  bookcases  should  be  designated  by 
letters,  the  shelves  by  numbers.  Thus  B  3  would  indicate 
the  third  shelf  of  the  second  case.  The  books  should  be 
arranged  by  topics,  In  many  school  libraries  patent  covers 
are  used  on  the  books.  These  are  inexpensive  and  easily  ad- 
justed. Within  the  volume  there  should  be  a  "  book  pocket," 
to  contain  the  membership  card,  on  which  the  issuing  of  the 
volume  is  recorded.  The  membership  card  should  contain 
on  the  reverse  side  the  regulations  concerning  the  books. 

Library  Catalogues.  —  There  are  various  forms  of  cata- 
logues for  libraries.  It  is  highly  important  that  there  be 
a  classified  list  of  books,  arranged  in  respect  to  topics,  so 
that  one  who  wishes  to  investigate  any  subject  may  see  at 
a  glance  what  books  in  the  library  relate  to  it.  A  classified 
catalogue,  moreover,  offers  a  graphic  suggestion  to  the  libra- 
rian as  to  the  subjects  in  which  his  list  is  deficient. 

An  alphabetical  catalogue  of  the  books,  under  the  names 
of  the  authors  or  editors,  is  also  highly  desirable.  Both  the 
classified  and  alphabetical  lists  can  be  printed  in  book  form 


SCHOOL  LIBEAEIES  179 

or  on  long  cards,  for  convenient  reference.  Where  the  list 
is  not  very  long,  the  card  catalogues  are  generally  preferred. 

A  third  plan  for  a  catalogue  is  that  of  card  slips.  A 
wooden  box  or  drawer,  without  a  cover,  is  filled  with  cards 
of  the  size  of  ordinary  envelopes,  which  fit  into  it  like  enve- 
lopes in  a  box,  except  that  the  box  or  drawer  is  shallower,  so 
that  the  cards  can  be  easily  taken  up.  Beginning  with  the 
first  card,  and  proceeding  in  the  regular  alphabetical  order 
of  the  authors'  names,  the  titles  of  the  books  are  written 
upon  the  several  cards  (one  on  each),  together  with  any 
matter  of  special  interest  in  reference  to  the  book  —  its 
relation  to  any  other  works,  the  edition,  etc. 

In  a  card  slip  catalogue  of  this  sort,  various  independent 
parts  of  a  single  volume  are  given  upon  separate  cards.  In 
the  case  of  such  a  work  as  Seven  American  Classics,  a  part 
of  the  book  containing  selections  from  any  one  of  the  seven 
authors  —  Irving,  Cooper,  Bryant,  Hawthorne,  Longfellow, 
Whittier,  and  Holmes  —  is  catalogued  separately.  This  is 
apt  to  make  the  card  slip  system  rather  cumbrous,  but  it 
proves,  in  the  end,  a  great  saving  of  time  and  trouble. 

As  the  cards  are  frequently  consulted,  they  will  be  occa- 
sionally replaced  (even  by  careful  persons)  in  a  wrong  order, 
unless  this  is  prevented  by  some  practical  device  to  secure 
a  return  to  their  proper  place  in  the  case.  A  favorite  plan 
is  to  have  a  slot  cut  in  each  card,  so  that  the  entire  number 
can  be  strung  upon  wires  or  rods.  The  slot  should  be  cut 
near  to  the  bottom  of  the  card,  and  should  be  long  enough 
to  permit  the  card  to  be  raised  for  convenient  reading,  after 
the  wire  is  strung  through  it  and  fastened  upon  the  ends 
of  the  box  or  drawer.  The  cards  should  be  very  loosely 
strung,  to  leave  room  for  the  fingers  to  pass  in  picking 
them  up. 

In  many  details  of  its  management,  the  teacher  or  super- 
intendent in  charge  of  a  considerable  school  library  will 
profit  by  a  visit  to  some  city  library  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  its  workings. 


180  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

A  New  Profession.  —  The  care  of  libraries  is  now  recog- 
nized as  a  distinct  profession.  There  are  at  the  present 
time  various  excellent  schools  for  the  training  of  librarians. 
In  these,  every  subject  relating  to  the  interests  of  the  read- 
ing public  is  studied  in  detail.  As  a  result,  there  is  now 
a  more  general  consensus  of  opinion  than  at  any  previous 
time  in  respect  to  the  real  character  and  value  of  the  books 
in  the  market ;  also  in  respect  to  plans  of  library  buildings, 
modes  of  classifying,  preserving,  and  distributing  books ; 
and  whatever  else  pertains  to  libraries  and  publications. 

Ambitious  girls  are  entering  this  profession  in  every 
State,  for  it  offers  an  excellent  field  for  woman's  work. 
Boys,  too,  are  looking  with  interest  upon  the  rise  of  the 
new  profession.  The  management  of  a  modest  school  library 
will  offer  an  excellent  preparation  for  a  library  course. 

In  the  selection  of  suitable  books,  the  teacher  will  find 
the  opinions  of  library  experts  very  valuable,  for  there  are 
few  books  in  our  language  which  have  not  been  passed 
upon  by  competent  library  critics. 

The  reckless  provision  of  books  of  questionable  character 
for  the  use  of  children  is  disappearing  under  the  higher 
criticism  of  library  experts,  and  authors  of  juvenile  books  in 
the  future  will  find  themselves  under  restrictions  unheard 
of  hitherto.  From  being  perhaps  the  most  careless  nation 
in  the  world  in  the  matter  of  reading  for  the  young,  we 
may  soon  change  to  the  most  critical  and  careful.  The 
books  of  the  future  which  are  professionally  "approved" 
under  the  high  standard  of  the  later  librarians  must  be 
of  the  best  that  can  be  written. 

In  the  matter  of  a  school  library,  the  true  modern  teacher 
will  make  his  influence  felt.  He  will  leave  his  impress  upon 
the  community  by  aiding  to  secure  wholesome  literature  for 
the  pupils,  and  by  encouraging  in  them  habits  of  systematic 
reading  —  the  reading  which  "  maketh  a  full  man."  If  the 
teacher  fails  to  do  this,  he  leaves  unperformed  one  of  the 
most  important  of  his  duties. 


CHAPTER   IX 
SCHOOL  MORALS 

To  what  extent  are  morals  taught  in  the  public  schools  ? 
How  can  the  parent  cooperate  with  the  teacher  in  the  moral 
training  of  the  children  ?  Should  there  be  a  definite  effort 
to  impart  instruction  in  morals  ? 

Moral  Training  in  the  Schools.  —  These  are  questions  which 
will  be  discussed  in  this  chapter.  There  are  many  persons 
who  will  say  that  there  should  be  no  attempt  to  impart 
instruction  in  morals,  since,  as  they  aver,  this  is  not  the 
province  of  the  school.  They  confound  moral  training  with 
religious  instruction,  and  fear  that  it  means  the  inculcation 
of  sectarian  doctrines.  These  persons  are  not  numerous. 
The  idea  that  instruction  in  morals  means  the  performance 
of  a  religious  ceremony  is  dropping  very  rapidly  out  of 
sight. 

The  divorce  between  Church  and  State  has  been  followed 
largely  by  the  nonobservance  of  religious  rites  in  secular 
employments.  The  great  majority  of  the  people  recognize 
the  fact  that  moral  training  can  be  inculcated  without 
religious  instruction,  except  that  religion  is  understood  to 
be  the  foundation  of  all  sense  of  obligation;  for  we  under- 
stand morality  to  be  a  sense  of  the  obligation  which  one 
person  owes  to  his  fellow,  to  society,  and  to  himself. 

There  is  a  large  number  of  teachers  who  believe  in  what 
they  call  "moral  training."  It  should  occupy,  they  con- 
ceive, fifteen  minutes  of  each  school  session,  and  the  time 
on  the  programme  assigned  to  "  Opening  Exercises  "  is  de- 

181 


182  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

voted  to  it  daily,  or  perhaps  several  times  every  week. 
This  "  moral  training  "  consists  in  the  reading  of  a  story  to 
impress,  perhaps,  a  lesson  of  kindness.  Or  it  may  be  that 
patriotism,  honesty,  benevolence,  or  bravery  is  the  theme. 
Then  a  song  is  sung  —  perhaps  Kind  Words  Can  Never  Die. 
It  may  be  that  a  chapter  of  the  Bible  is  read,  without  com- 
ment, and  a  short  prayer  is  offered.  All  this  is  beautiful, 
and,  in  the  hands  of  the  tactful  teacher,  may  be  made  strik- 
ingly impressive,  and  may  bear  good  fruit  in  better  lives. 

Other  teachers  there  are,  who  do  not  give  the  subject  any 
thought  at  all.  They  conceive  their  duty  to  be  ended  when 
they  have  duly  carried  out  the  set  recitations  of  the  pro- 
gramme, and  have  done  all  they  can  do  to  impart  instruction 
in  the  branches  they  have  engaged  to  teach. 

We  believe  that  both  these  classes  lose  sight  of  the 
deeper  fact  that,  whether  they  will  it  or  not,  there  is  a 
training  in  morals  going  on  all  the  time  in  their  school- 
rooms. It  would  be  well,  indeed,  that  they  should  realize 
the  fact ;  for  when  once  awakened  to  it,  they  can  be  conscious, 
instead  of  unconscious,  factors  in  the  development  of  a 
moral  atmosphere  which  will  have  a  lasting  influence  on 
the  plastic  souls  of  the  children. 

Let  the  teachers  continue  the  beautiful  stories,  if  they 
like.  It  is  well  that  they  do  this.  Any  story  that  will 
strike  a  responsive  thrill  will  give  an  impulse  towards  the 
ideal  of  the  tale.  Any  charming  narrative  of  kindness  dis- 
played toward  the  brute  creation  will  have  its  softening 
influence  on  hard,  cruel  tendencies  of  young  souls.  Any 
description  of  scenes  where  nobility  of  character  is  dis- 
played in  showing  reverence  for  gray  hairs  will  awaken  to 
thoughtfulness  the  indifferent  carelessness  which  is  the 
cause  of  young  people's  forgetting  so  often  to  do  the  little 
act  of  kind  courtesy  that  would  warm  a  mother's  heart  or 
bring  to  the  eyes  of  the  neglected  and  distressed  stranger 
the  tears  of  gratitude.  These  exercises  may  bear  fruit  in 
beautiful  deeds  that  will  make  the  world  brighter. 


SCHOOL  MORALS  183 

But  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  training  of  the 
morals  is  certain  to  go  beyond  the  fifteen  minutes  of  the 
opening  exercises.  The  tender  emotions  awakened  by 
the  beautiful  story  and  stirred  by  the  sweet  song  will 
have  no  effect  on  character  unless  followed  by  some  definite 
act  of  the  will.  Indeed,  in  some  respects  it  is  better  not 
to  have  resolved  at  all  than  to  have  resolved  and  then  made 
no  effort  to  carry  out  the  resolution.  If  the  tale  of  kind- 
ness leads  the  child  to  abstain  from  cruelty,  it  has  wrought 
a  lasting  good.  If  the  story  of  patriotic  fervor  has  awak- 
ened a  thrill  at  the  sight  of  the  flag,  it  has  not  been  wasted. 
It  is  insisted  that  morality  is  a  training  of  the  will  and  a 
formation  of  habits,  rather  than  a  knowledge  of  theoretical 
principles. 

The  Teacher's  Responsibility.  —  The  school  is  one  of  the 
greatest  forces  that  can  be  wielded  in  the  moral  training  for 
citizenship.  It  stands  next  to,  and  in  some  points  ahead 
of,  the  family.  The  teacher — every  teacher — is,  of  course, 
aware  of  the  fact  that  his  own  life  and  actions  are  having 
their  effect  on  the  destinies  of  his  pupils.  Every  teacher  is 
conscious  of  the  fact  that  his  tastes  and  modes  of  thought 
are  molding  theirs ;  so  must  his  bearing  and  habits  affect 
theirs. 

The  teacher  feels  this  strongly  at  times,  I  think,  and  he 
must  have  a  sense  of  it  always.  If  he  has  flippant  notions 
of  life,  if  he  regards  it  as  a  great  jest,  many  a  boy  will  come 
to  look  upon  it  in  the  same  way.  If  his  view  is  a  morbid 
one,  if  he  is  a  lugubrious  pessimist,  he  will  have  no  greater 
immediate  effect,  perhaps,  on  the  sunny  brightness  of  youth 
than  a  sudden  shower  on  an  April  morning.  The  dire  in- 
fluence of  his  blighted  life  may  make  its  appearance  later. 

The  Discipline  of  the  School.  —  But  it  is  not  only  the 
teacher's  personal  influence  that  I  wish  to  emphasize  at  this 
time ;  it  is  of  the  influence  of  the  school  as  an  institution 
that  I  would  speak.  The  mechanical  discipline  of  the  school 
has  a  great  weight  in  moral  training.  The  teacher  who  is  lax 


184  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

in  discipline  is  doing  a  far  greater  injury  to  the  child  than  is 
seen  in  the  interference  with  proper  study  and  recitation 
work.  "  Mechanical  virtues,"  says  Dr.  Harris,  "  are  indis- 
pensable as  an  elementary  basis  of  character."  What  an 
admirable  place  is  the  school  for  acquiring  these  virtues. 
For  example,  there  is  the  virtue  of  obedience.  The  school 
demands  obedience,  and  the  acquired  habit  of  rendering  it 
means  obedience  to  parents ;  it  means  obedience  to  employers 
and  officers  in  after  life  ;  it  means  obedience  to  civil  law  and 
authority ;  it  means  obedience  to  the  law  of  God. 

Punctuality  is  one  result  of  this  habit  of  obedience.  The 
child  is  taught  to  be  prompt  in  going  to  school.  The  dispo- 
sition to  be  idle,  the  careless  use  of  his  moments,  the  morn- 
ing nap,  must  give  way  to  the  habit  of  observing  the 
particular  point  of  time  when  it  is  his  duty  to  do  a  specific 
thing.  This  law  of  punctuality  governs  the  whole  life  of 
the  school.  Eecitations  must  begin  promptly,  and  end  as 
promptly.  There  can  be  little  idling  or  attending  to  other 
business  than  that  which  is  in  hand. 

The  power  of  self-control  is  strengthened  by  refraining 
from  doing  that  which  will  disturb  others.  The  pupil's 
obedience  to  the  law  of  the  school  should  lead  him  to  be 
as  quiet  as  possible,  in  order  that  he  may  not  interfere  with 
the  work  and  comfort  of  others.  He  should  be  led  to  see 
that  his  resistance  of  the  desire  to  chatter  and  gossip  with 
his  fellows  will  result  in  a  great  and  wholesome  good  in 
after  life.  It  will  keep  him,  perhaps,  from  opening  his 
mouth  frequently  when  he  has  nothing  to  say.  It  will  do 
more :  it  will  lead  him  unconsciously  to  observe  the  rights 
of  others,  and  so  will  lay  the  foundation  of  the  very  impor- 
tant social  virtue  of  courtesy. 

Further,  the  pupil  will  be  led  into  habits  of  industry. 
The  definite  assignment  of  a  certain  amount  of  work  daily 
will  prove  the  best  training  in  habits  of  work.  Nothing  can 
be  better  than  the  taking  up,  each  day,  of  a  definite  pro- 
gramme of  work  and  accomplishing  it.  The  effects  of  this 


SCHOOL  MORALS  185 

discipline  will  last  far  beyond  the  school  life  of  the  pupil. 
Industry  will  become  a  fixed  habit.  The  teacher  who  is  lax 
in  his  effort  to  secure  these  important  "  mechanical  virtues," 
does  an  incalculable  injury  to  the  child. 

Parents  can  render  great  assistance  to  the  teacher  by  so 
arranging  the  duties  of  the  household  that  there  may  be  no 
interference  with  the  law  of  the  school.  In  this  they  will 
be  doing  their  children  a  greater  service  than  they  may 
realize.  They  can  make  it  their  care  to  see  that  there  is 
regular  attendance  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  household  which  permits  the  child  to  be  punc- 
tual one  day  should  become  the  permanent  arrangement,  so 
that  he  may  be  punctual  every  day. 

Moreover,  the  parent  should  assist  the  teacher  by  seeing 
that  the  allotted  tasks  for  home  study  are  performed.  He 
must  see  that,  in  doing  this,  he  is  assisting  in  the  great 
influence  of  the  school  in  favor  of  habits  of  systematic 
industry.  There  are  interests  at  stake  other  than  the  child's 
progress  in  knowledge  —  interests  which  are  perhaps  weight- 
ier. Foundations  of  character  are  laid,  that  will  affect  his 
destiny  through  life.  Are  not  the  "  little  things  "  worthy  of 
the  careful  attention  of  the  parents  ?  Should  they  not  be 
insisted  upon  by  every  teacher  ? 

Social  Duties  of  School  Children.  —  On  the  other  hand,  the 
teacher  must  not  be  a  tyrant  in  his  school.  There  must 
be  no  police  system  of  surveillance,  nor  cruel  exercise  of 
authority.  They  will  produce  a  brood  of  cheats  and  hypo- 
crites. The  children  must  themselves  realize  the  law  of  the 
school,  and  must  feel  that  it  is  their  duty  and  privilege  to 
be  punctual,  regular,  and  courteous  to  other  pupils  and  to 
the  teacher. 

The  habit  of  refraining  from  noise,  as  a  matter  of  courtesy, 
rises  above  the  plane  of  the  habits  inculcated  by  the  ma- 
chinery of  the  school.  It  is  more  than  a  mechanical  art. 
It  involves  consideration  for  others  —  the  relation  of  man 
to  man ;  and  so  is  really  a  social  duty.  In  this  and  in  other 


186  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

ways  the  school  does  instill  these  higher  duties  which  make 
moral  fiber. 

The  pupil's  regard  for  himself  and  for  his  fellows  will 
cause  him  to  pay  attention  to  his  person.  It  will  induce 
him  to  be  cleanly  and  tidy  —  to  brush  his  teeth,  his  hair, 
and  his  clothes ;  to  keep  his  hands  and  face  clean,  and  his 
nails  presentable.  It  will  keep  him  from  intemperance  in 
eating;  it  will  be  a  check  upon  intemperance  in  speech; 
and  it  will  restrain  him  from  the  use  of  slang,  and  from  ob- 
scenity and  profanity. 

The  school  should  be  the  training  school  of  all  forms  of 
courtesy.  It  should  inculcate  all  that  is  meant  by  good 
breeding.  It  should  teach  respect  for  the  opinions  of  others. 
It  should  teach  the  child  to  see  the  good  points  of  others, 
rather  than  their  faults.  The  personal  influence  of  the 
teacher  will  have  its  effect  here,  more  than  in  any  other 
particular. 

Truth  telling  is  another  social  duty  which  is  strongly 
emphasized  in  the  good  school.  The  teacher  who  will  com- 
pel his  students  to  search  out  the  exact  truth  of  the  matter 
under  investigation,  and  who  will  then  insist  that  the  result 
of  the  investigation  be  told  in  exact  language,  clearly,  and 
without  any  misrepresentation  arising  from  inexact  and 
careless  use  of  words,  is  affording  an  exercise  in  truth 
telling,  which  goes  far  deeper  than  the  subject  matter  of  the 
lesson. 

Honesty  of  purpose,  uprightness,  and  integrity  are  all 
fostered  under  the  teacher  who  sees  that  lessons  are  care- 
fully prepared  and  carefully  recited,  and  who  notes  what 
pupils  are  deserving,  respectively,  of  commendation  and  of 
reproof. 

Respect  for  Law. — Concerning  the  teacher's  respect  for 
law,  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  remarks :  "  The  school,  when  governed 
by  an  arbitrary  and  tyrannical  teacher,  is  a  demoralizing  in- 
fluence in  a  community.  The  law-abiding  virtue  is  weakened, 
and  a  whole  troop  of  lesser  virtues  take  their  flight  and  give 


SCHOOL  MOEALB  187 

admittance  to  passions  and  appetites.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  wise  and  just  teacher  will  teach  respect  for  law 
very  thoroughly. 

"  A  great  change  has  been  wrought  in  the  methods  of  dis- 
cipline in  later  years.  It  is  clear  that  with  frequent  and 
severe  corporal  punishment  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  retain 
genuine  respect  for  law.  Only  the  very  rare  teacher  can 
succeed  in  this.  Punishment  through  the  sense  of  honor 
has,  therefore,  superseded  for  the  most  part,  in  our  best 
schools,  the  use  of  the  rod.  It  is  now  easy  to  find  the  school 
admirably  disciplined  and  its  pupils  enthusiastic  and  law- 
abiding —  governed  entirely  without  the  use  of  corporal 
punishment." 

The  teacher  has  a  far  greater  responsibility  than  that  of 
imparting  a  knowledge  of  the  binomial   theorem  or  Latin 
case  endings.     He  is  responsible  for  a  law  in  the  school 
which  will  train  the  pupil  rightly  along  the  lines  indicated 
above,  and  which  will  make  him  a  law  unto  himself.     The 
whole  aim  of  education  is  self -culture.     Culture  consists  in  ^ 
standing  above  the  present  moment,  and  in  seeing  the  remo-/ 
ter  good;  it  consists  in  seeing  in  things  all  that  is  really  inV 
them,  including  their  relation  to  each  other  and  to  the  uni-  \ 
verse  of  God;   it  consists  in  realizing  our  responsibilities^ 
and  seeing  before  us  our  ideal. 

Higher  than  the  habits  absorbed  unconsciously  by  the 
pupil  in  his  mechanical  performance  of  the  requirements  of 
the  school ;  higher  than  the  sense  of  social  duties  of  punc- 
tuality, courtesy,  and  respect  for  authority,  are  the  lofty 
virtues  which  the  true  teacher  will  impart  by  a  spirit  of  true 
kindness  pervading  his  school.  Consideration,  gratitude, 
friendliness,  benevolence,  toleration,  patriotism,  tenderness, 
charity,  and  kindred  virtues  will  all  swell  the  hearts  of  the 
impressionable  children,  and  will  be  mighty  factors  in  the 
development  of  true  men  and  women. 

This  spirit  of  true  kindness  can  hardly  live  where  envy 
and  personal  hatred  are  fostered  by  the  pernicious  custom 


188  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

of  offering  medals  and  prizes  for  successful  work.  Pride, 
envy,  and  selfishness  are  surely  opposed  to  the  cardinal 
virtues  mentioned  above,  and  not  much  else  results  from 
the  prize  system. 

To  sum  up :  since  we  see  that  the  school  is  certain  to  have 
a  powerful  influence  in  the  moral  training  of  children,  does 
it  not  seem  that  it  rests  with  the  teacher  what  sort  of  train- 
ing it  shall  be?  The  teacher  who  will  inspire  habits  of 
punctuality,  regularity,  and  self-control ;  of  courtesy,  honor, 
and  respect  for  law ;  of  kindness,  toleration,  and  patriotism ; 
of  tenderness,  forgiveness,  and  humility  —  must  himself  be 
punctual,  regular,  and  self-contained;  must  be  courteous, 
and  honorable,  and  have  respect  for  authority;  must  be 
kind,  tolerant,  patriotic,  tender,  forgiving,  and  humble. 
Then  will  he  be  able  to  give  his  pupils  that  which  will 
enable  them  to  help  themselves.  He  will  impart  that 
moral  vigor  which  will  cause  them  to  be  good  for  the 
sake  of  being  good. 


VI 

SCHOOL  ETIQUETTE 

SCHOOL  CELEBRATIONS  AND 
OBSERVANCES 


CHAPTER  X 
SCHOOL  ETIQUETTE 

The  Meaning  of  Etiquette. — The  word  etiquette  signified 
originally  a  label,  designating  the  contents  of  a  parcel.  The 
etiquette  revealed  at  a  glance  the  nature  of  the  package  upon 
which  it  was  placed.  So  now,  in  a  more  general  sense,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  character  of  the  man  is  designated  by 
his  bearing  towards  others,  and  by  his  observance  of  those 
common  rules  of  conduct  which  add  very  largely  to  the  sum 
total  of  human  happiness.  This  is  etiquette  in  the  modern 
sense,  in  which  the  word  is  used  throughout  this  chapter. 
The  true  foundation  of  all  etiquette  is  a  spirit  of  kindness 
and  courtesy.  Every  one  requires  training  in  the  proprieties 
of  social  life. 

Forms  differ  in  many  respects  in  the  various  countries, 
and  often  in  different  localities  of  the  same  country.  The 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  England  wear  their 
hats  during  the  sessions.  This  would  be  deemed  a  gross 
impropriety  in  an  American  Congress  or  Legislature.  In 
the  city  of  Washington,  it  is  the  custom  for  newcomers 
to  make  the  first  calls;  while  in  other  cities  the  rule  is 
the  reverse  of  this.  In  the  main,  however,  the  rules  of 
polite  society  are  essentially  the  same  in  the  enlightened 
nations. 

The  Importance  of  Etiquette.  —  There  are  many  who  under- 
estimate the  importance  of  etiquette,  and  who  regard  the 
social  usages  of  representative  society  as  in  the  nature  of 
affectation.  This  is  a  grave  error.  A  regard  for  social 
usages  has  much  to  do  with  success  in  life.  Men  sometimes 

191 


192  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

succeed  without  it;   yet  where   some   succeed,   many  fail 
because  of  their  lack  in  this  respect. 

Americans  have  not  a  flattering  reputation  in  other  coun- 
tries, in  respect  to  politeness,  though  all  the  world  admires 
their  enterprise,  courage,  and  generosity.  The  statesman- 
ship of  American  diplomats  at  the  courts  of  the  world  has 
been  universally  recognized ;  but  some  of  these  distinguished 
men  have  been  remembered  in  society  for  unfortunate  social  j 
blunders  which,  though  seemingly  trifling  in  themselves,  i 
were  to  be  regretted,  to  say  the  least.  Many  a  young  man 
of  ability  has  been  handicapped  in  the  race  for  honor  and 
fame  by  not  having  learned  what  the  usages  of  good  society 
require.  Young  men  not  superior  in  other  qualifications 
have  outstripped  him  in  the  race  because  they  had  in  mind 
and  practiced  at  all  times  those  little  kindly  courtesies 
which  custom  demands. 

A  country  in  which  the  highest  political  and  social  posi- 
tions are  open  to  all  should  be,  of  all  countries,  one  in  which 
social  culture  is  universal.  In  homes  of  refinement,  children 
acquire  it  unconsciously.  Unfortunately,  in  many  homes  the 
proprieties  of  life  are  often  violated,  and  politeness  is  deemed 
a  luxury  to  be  reserved  for  strangers  and  for  formal  occa- 
sions. Among  the  members  of  such  households  there  is  a 
lack  of  cheery  greetings,  of  apologies  for  little  errors,  and 
thanks  for  little  favors,  of  delicacy  in  matters  which  affect 
the  sensibilities,  and  of  gentleness  in  word  and  deed.  Even 
children  most  fortunate  in  their  home  surroundings  may 
acquire  coarseness  of  manner  from  their  contact  with  the 
ill-mannered  during  the  susceptible  period  of  school  life. 

The  Influence  of  Example.  —  In  the  school  the  manners  of 
children  are  molded  or,  at  least,  influenced  in  a  large  degree. 
The  teacher  should  be  a  pattern  of  deportment.  Example 
is  the  most  effective  teacher.  Even  the  servants  of  the 
really  refined  are  apt  to  exhibit  a  better  deportment  than 
citizens  of  influence  whose  ideas  of  propriety  have  been 
acquired  only  in  a  theoretical  way. 


SCHOOL   ETIQUETTE  193 

Etiquette  not  a  Mere  System  of  Forms.  —  By  "school 
etiquette"  is  not  meant  a  mere  system  of  forms  to  be 
observed  in  the  schoolroom.  The  spirit  of  etiquette  is 
not  to  be  limited  to  any  room  or  place.  True  politeness 
springs  from,  the  heart.  If  the  spirit  of  kindness  and 
courtesy  reigns  in  the  individual,  it  will  need  only  a  few 
thoughtful  suggestions  here  and  there  to  guide  specifically 
the  outward  conduct  in  the  school,  in  church,  in  the  parlor 
or  office,  or  on  the  street. 

Formerly  it  was  deemed  necessary  for  public  libraries  to 
have  conspicuously  posted  placards  requesting  gentlemen  to 
remove  their  hats  on  entering.  This  is  now  generally  dis- 
continued, as  an  unneeded  precaution,  though  we  may  still 
frequently  see  on  street  cars  a  printed  request  to  pas- 
sengers to  keep  their  feet  off  the  seats.  Sometimes  teachers 
post  in  their  halls  printed  rules  of  propriety  to  be  observed. 
Generally  it  will  be  found  better  to  inculcate  politeness  in 
another  way. 

Facial  Expression.  —  The  expression  of  the  countenance  is 
an  index  to  the  spirit  of  the  individual.  "  On  entering  a 
school,"  says  Gow,  "  and  examining  the  faces  of  the  pupils, 
we  are  unconsciously  drawn  to  some  and  repelled  by  others. 
Whence  comes  this  difference  ?  Looking  around,  we  discover 
here  a  face  wearing  a  pleasant  but  not  affected  smile,  while 
there  sits  one  that  cultivates  a  habitual  frown,  whose  mouth 
and  brows  are  rough,  with  a  coarse  expression  of  unlove- 
liness.  Here  is  one  that  bears  a  bright,  intelligent  counte- 
nance ;  he  is  a  student,  a  thinker.  There  is  one  whose  face 
never  lights  up  with  emotion.  He  does  not  care  to  learn. 
Here  is  one  that  wears  a  silly  simper,  that  is  ready  to  laugh 
at  the  slightest  occasion,  indicating  a  vacant,  trifling  character. 
Here  is  one  who  is  full  of  affectation,  whose  mouth  is  moving 
in  pretense  of  study,  but  whose  eye  is  watching  to  see  whether 
he  is  observed.  Here  is  one  who  affects  coarseness,  who  is 
abrupt  and  rude,  whose  manner  indicates  respect  neither  for 
himself  nor  others.  And  there  is  a  coward,  who  takes 

SCH.  IXT.   &  BUT. — 13 


194  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

advantage  of  his  teacher.  Injustice  may  be  done  sometimes 
in  thus  forming  an  estimate  of  character  from  appearances. 
Yet  as  a  rule  we  may  distinguish  intelligence,  gentleness, 
.and  kindness  from  ignorance,  coarseness,  and  brutality,  by 
an  inspection  of  the  countenance.  Habits  of  mind  are 
stamped  upon  the  face.  This  is  true  even  of  animals.  The 
heart  and  mind  educate  the  features  to  express  what  they 
suggest." 

Manner  of  Speaking.  —  Politeness  is  indicated  by  the  tones 
of  the  voice,  as  well  as  by  the  words  employed.  "  What  a 
wonderful  power,"  says  Gow,  "the  sweetly  modulated  ac- 
cents of  a  fine  voice  exert  upon  the  ear ;  and  with  what  a 
charm  they  invest  its  fortunate  possessor!  Good  or  bad 
impressions  are  made  upon  us,  not  only  by  what  people  say, 
but  by  the  tones  used  in  conversation.  We  feel  attracted  or 
repulsed  by  a  person's  voice  before  we  have  heard  fully 
what  he  has  to  say.  Habits  of  thought  are  indicated  to  a 
great  degree  by  habits  of  expression,  as  he  who  is  habitually 
ill-natured  will  give  expression  to  his  thoughts  in  ill-natured 
tones.  Some  young  people  have  a  fashion  of  drawling  their 
words ;  others  speak  with  amazing  rapidity.  Some  deliver 
their  thoughts  in  a  high,  squeaking  key ;  others  utter  short, 
low,  growling  tones.  Some  speak  so  softly  that  they  are 
heard  with  difficulty ;  while  others  are  loud,  boisterous,  and 
harsh.  All  these  varieties  of  utterance  indicate  a  want  of 
culture.  Good  society  demands  that  we  make  ourselves  as 
agreeable  as  possible,  and  nothing  serves  to  make  a  better 
first  impression  than  a  carefully  trained  voice.  Politeness 
requires  that  we  speak  clearly,  distinctly,  and  always  loud 
enough  to  be  easily  heard,  without  being  boisterous  and 
rude.  A  whispering  style  of  expression  is  annoying;  a 
boisterous  manner  is  vulgar." 

Propriety  of  Speech. — The  use  of  pure,  correct  language 
and  the  avoidance  of  slang  and  of  coarseness  in  speech  are 
exceedingly  desirable.  The  employment  of  stilted  speech 
and  the  parading  of  a  knowledge  of  foreign  terms  are  highly 


SCHOOL  ETIQUETTE  195 

objectionable.  On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  but  a  limited 
vocabulary,  insufficient  for  the  distinctions  which  a  cultivated 
person  should  make  in  his  use  of  words,  is  not  to  be  com- 
mended. 

Politeness  in  words  is  one  of  the  most  important  lessons 
to  learn.  It  excludes  gross  familiarity,  even  among  intimate 
friends,  and  it  forbids  all  remarks  of  a  nature  to  wound  the 
feelings.  Often  it  is  violated  thoughtlessly,  and  from  mere 
force  of  habit.  How  frequently  do  we  hear,  in  a  neighbor- 
hood, such  characterizations  as  "old  Mrs.  Jones,"  "the 
widow  Smith,"  etc.  Yet  the  habitual  designation  of  indi- 
viduals by  their  age  or  afflictions  is  not  agreeable  to  the 
sensitive,  and  should  not  be  encouraged. 

"Never  say  an  ill-natured  thing,  nor  be  witty  at  the  ex- 
pense of  any  one  present,  nor  gratify  the  inclination,  which 
is  sometimes  very  strong  in  young  people,  to  laugh  at  and 
ridicule  the  weaknesses  or  infirmities  of  others,  by  way  of 
diverting  the  company." 

Topics  of  conversation  should  be  chosen  with  due  respect 
for  the  tastes  of  the  persons  present.  Egotism  and  false 
modesty  are  to  be  alike  avoided.  Heated  discussions  should 
be  shunned,  and  likewise  all  remarks  likely  to  lead  to  them ; 
there  must  always  be,  of  necessity,  a  wide  difference  of  opinion 
on  most  questions.  When  it  becomes  evident  that  a  discus- 
sion is  distasteful  to  any  of  the  company,  a  person  of  tact 
will  quickly  change  it. 

Politeness  requires  that  the  speaker  shall  turn  his  face 
directly  to  the  person  addressed,  and  that  the  latter  shall 
look  directly  at  the  speaker.  Interruptions  in  conversation 
are  impolite.  While  nothing  but  the  truth  should  ever  be 
spoken,  the  truth  itself  is  not  always  to  be  told,  particularly 
of  the  absent.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a  half -told  truth 
often  bears  the  suggestion  of  a  falsehood ;  and  in  all  remarks 
which  one  person  makes  concerning  another,  the  speaker 
should  have  a  care  to  observe  not  only  exact  justice,  but  also 
to  exercise  a  spirit  of  charity  and  kindness. 


196  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Forms  of  Address. — To  address  others  respectfully  is  a 
practice  which  no  cultured  person  will  neglect.  "  The  poor 
people,"  says  Miss  Mitford,  "are  always  nice  judges  of 
behavior."  The  aged  are  apt  to  be  sensitive  as  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  are  addressed. 

Happily,  we  have  in  America  no  system  of  hereditary 
rank,  with  its  complicated  titles  and  forms  of  address,  such 
as  obtains  in  many  nations.  Republican  institutions  favor  a 
sense  of  manly  and  womanly  self-respect ;  and  the  courtesy 
which  we  expect  from  others  we  ourselves  should  be  certain 
to  practice  in  all  our  intercourse  with  others  and  in  all  our 
references  to  them. 

As  a  nation  we  have  been  charged  —  perhaps  justly  — 
with  a  fondness  for  titles.  It  is  a  false  idea  of  etiquette 
which  prompts  the  bestowal  of  these  upon  persons  who  have 
no  rightful  claim  to  them.  It  has  been  humorously  related 
that  a  gentleman  standing  upon  a  wharf  once  called  out 
"  Good-by,  Colonel,"  to  a  friend  upon  the  deck  of  a  depart- 
ing steamship,  and  that  his  salutation  was  answered  by  every 
gentleman  upon  the  deck.  Military  titles  won  in  the  service 
of  our  country,  and  certain  other  titles  of  office,  are  apt  to 
be  remembered  affectionately  by  the  people ;  and  their  con- 
tinued use  in  address  is  by  no  means  improper.  It  is  only 
their  indiscriminate  and  meaningless  employment  that  is 
objectionable. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  title  Professor  has  been  much  abused. 
Formerly  it  was  restricted  to  specialists  in  the  various  de- 
partments of  learning,  and  applied  to  those  who  filled  chairs 
of  special  instruction  in  colleges.  It  has  become  far  more 
general  in  its  application.  As  a  result,  a  number  of  colleges 
have  been  led  to  discard  it  altogether.  There  are  those  who 
apply  the  title  without  discrimination  to  school  officers  and 
teachers  of  all  grades,  and  there  are  others  who  never  employ 
it.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  a  distinction  in 
the  mode  of  address  should  be  made  between  instructors  in 
collegiate  institutions  and  other  educators,  equally  capable, 


SCHOOL  ETIQUETTE  197 

who  are  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  public  schools.  While 
this  title  should  not  be  applied  to  those  who  object  to  it,  or 
to  young  and  inexperienced  teachers,  it  may  be  used  with 
propriety  in  addressing  instructors  of  recognized  attainments, 
especially  elderly  men  in  the  profession  who  have  attested 
their  claims  to  respect  as  representative  educators. 

Deportment  upon  the  Street.  —  A  graceful  carriage  in  walk- 
ing is  well  worth  the  care  of  acquiring.  One  should  not  walk 
too  rapidly,  nor  should  he  saunter  lazily  along.  The  habit 
of  stooping  when  standing  or  walking  is  inelegant,  and  leads 
to  a  deformity  of  the  body.  Those  who  stand  and  walk  erect 
in  their  earlier  years  will  not  so  soon  become  bowed  by  age. 
The  toes  should  turn  outward.  The  steps  should  be  of 
even  length.  A  swinging  gait  and  all  forms  of  ungraceful 
carriage  should  be  avoided. 

Persons  passing  each  other  in  the  street  should  turn  to 
the  right.  When  a  gentleman  is  walking  with  a  lady,  he 
may  keep  to  the  outside  of  the  sidewalk  in  case  there  is 
liability  to  annoyance  from  teams,  etc.,  in  the  street ;  other- 
wise, it  is  preferable  for  him  to  walk  at  the  left  of  the  lady. 
A  gentleman  should  never  take  a  lady's  arm.  He  may  offer 
his  arm  to  a  lady  with  whom  he  may  be  walking  in  the 
evening;  and  in  the  daytime,  also,  in  any  place  of  danger 
(as  when  the  walk  is  slippery),  or  of  inconvenience  (as  when 
the  street  is  obstructed  by  a  crowd).  A  gentleman  recog- 
nized on  the  street  by  a  female  acquaintance  should  lift  his 
hat  politely,  and  make  a  respectful  bow.  The  motion 
should  not  be  "jerky"  or  self-conscious.  From  long  habit 
it  may  become  so  natural  as  to  be  involuntary. 

"  Young  people  should  always  be  prompt  to  acknowledge 
the  politeness  of  those  who  notice  them,"  says  Gow.  "  They 
should  never  speak  to  their  superiors  first,  as  it  might  be 
construed  as  a  mark  of  pert  familiarity ;  but  when  a  lady 
or  gentleman  wishes  to  salute  them,  they  should  respond 
with  a  pleasant  'good  morning'  or  'good  evening,7  as  the 
case  may  be,  accompanied  by  an  agreeable  smile.  It  is 


198  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

expected  that  a  lady  will  always  recognize  the  gentleman 
first ;  a  girl  the  boy ;  and  as  a  rule,  the  superior,  the  inferior 
in  age  or  station.  When  young  men  or  boys  meet  their 
superiors  in  age  and  station,  or  those  of  the  other  sex,  who 
recognize  them,  they  should  always  lift  their  hats  politely 
and  make  a  respectful  bow." 

The  Deportment  at  the  School.  —  The  conduct  of  boys  and 
girls  on  the  school  grounds  and  in  the  halls  of  the  school 
building,  where  they  are  under  less  restraint  than  in  the 
schoolroom,  is  a  test  of  their  gentlemanly  and  ladylike 
character.  It  is  not  a  universal  custom,  even  in  representa- 
tive colleges,  for  students  to  remove  their  hats  on  entering 
the  halls.  This  is  customary,  however,  in  many  colleges 
and  schools,  and  is  to  be  encouraged,  as  an  act  of  gentle- 
manly propriety.  A  sense  of  delicacy  will  lead  boys  to 
precede  girls  in  ascending  stairways,  and  to  give  them  the 
precedence  in  descending.  Boisterousness  in  the  halls  is 
inadmissible,  whether  within  or  without  the  hours  of  the 
school  session.  Where  gentlemanly  and  ladylike  instincts 
prevail  in  the  pupil,  they  will  not  fail  to  manifest  themselves 
at  all  times  and  places. 

Care  for  Articles  of  Value.  —  A  spirit  of  forwardness  often 
leads  young  persons  to  take  liberties  with  the  property  of 
others,  and  especially  with  public  property.  A  want  of  care 
in  respect  to  articles  of  taste  and  delicacy  is  a  common 
result  of  a  lack  of  familiarity  with  them.  There  is  an  edu- 
cational value  in  tasteful  and  elegant  appointments  of  a 
schoolroom.  Where  the  pupil  is  not  trained  to  use  these 
properly,  the  results  of  this  default  soon  become  nt>tice- 
able.  Books  of  the  school  library  —  sometimes  rare  and 
valuable  —  are  returned  with  leaves  turned  down  and  other- 
wise injured.  Costly  globes  are  ruined  by  the  touch  of 
many  hands.  Pianos  and  other  furniture  of  polished  sur- 
face are  disfigured  by  finger  marks  and  scratches.  Diction- 
aries and  other  books  for  general  use  have  their  leaves 
soiled  by  the  marks  of  wet  thumbs.  Valuable  apparatus 


SCHOOL   ETIQUETTE  199 

is  rendered  utterly  -worthless  by  meddlesome  handling. 
Organs  and  other  musical  instruments  sustain  injury  from 
untrained  players.  Specimens  in  mineralogical  cabinets  are 
carelessly  broken,  and  rendered  worthless,  by  pupils  igno- 
rant of  their  value.  Instances  like  these  might  be  multi- 
plied indefinitely.  A  little  suggestion  here  and  there  from 
the  teacher  will  do  much  to  correct  their  pupils  of  such 
faults  as  those  indicated,  which  spring  not  from  malice  or 
willfulness,  but  from  a  want  of  proper  training. 

At  public  art  reviews  in  cities  there  are  often  many  visi- 
tors who  are  ready  to  touch  with  finger,  pencil,  or  even  with 
cane  or  umbrella,  the  valuable  paintings  on  exhibition,  and 
who  are  prevented  from  so  doing  only  by  the  watchfulness 
and  care  of  the  custodians.  Such  visitors  should  have 
learned  better  manners  in  school,  if  not  at  home. 

Correspondence:  —  Correspondence,  like  conversation,  is  a 
test  of  the  refinement  of  the  writer.  The  subject  is  gener- 
ally treated,  to  a  limited  extent,  in  books  of  composition 
and  rhetoric,  and  pupils  are  cautioned  against  improprieties 
in  the  form  and  address  of  letters.  Neatness  in  appearance, 
and  accuracy  and  completeness  in  the  address,  are  impor- 
tant considerations.  Inks  of  unusual  colors  are  to  be  avoided, 
as  are  envelopes  of  peculiar  shape  and  style.  The  use  of  the 
word  city  in  place  of  the  name  of  the  city  is  objectionable. 

Such  legends  as  "  Courtesy  of  Mr. "  or  "  Kindness  of 

Miss  "  are  falling  into  disuse.  The  superscription 

should  be  not  only  neat  and  legible,  but  also  sufficient  and 
specific. 

Letters  add  much  to  the  pleasure  and  to  the  pain  of 
human  life.  Words  thoughtlessly  written  often  cause 
wretchedness  where  no  unkindness  is  intended.  Impru- 
dent letters  of  young  people  often  result  in  mortification  to 
the  writers.  Candor,  courtesy,  and  simple  dignity  should 
characterize  the  correspondence  of  boys  and  girls.  The 
teacher's  influence  and  example  in  all  that  relates  to  letter 
writing  will  not  be  lost  upon  his  pupils. 


200  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Deportment  at  Meals. — The  proprieties  of  eating  are  of 
very  great  importance.  Few  persons  who  disregard  these 
are  aware  of  the  discomfort  they  cause  to  their  companions 
who  have  had  the  benefit  of  more  careful  training.  In 
many  schools  there  are  pupils  who  reside  at  a  distance  from 
the  schoolhouse,  and  who  bring  luncheons  with  them.  All 
should  possess  such  a  knowledge  of  proper  conduct  at  meals 
as  will  enable  them  to  be  companionable  to  one  another  on 
such  occasions.  This  knowledge  will  be  of  value  to  them 
through  life,  and  will  enable  them  to  derive  greater  enjoy- 
ment from  their  social  relations.  Every  repast  should  be 
seasoned  with  good  humor.  Sociability  is  an  aid  to  the 
digestion.  The  napkins  of  adults  should  be  held  in  the  lap, 
and  not  tucked  into  the  collar  or  buttonhole.  Only  small 
children  require  a  napkin  upon  the  breast. 

In  the  mastication  of  food  the  lips  should  be  kept  closed. 
Rapid  eating  is  not  only  harmful,  but  also  offensive.  The 
food  should  be  slowly  and  thoroughly  masticated,  and  should 
be  eaten  noiselessly.  The  smacking  of  the  lips  is  disgusting. 
Bread  and  cake  should  be  broken,  and  not  cut  or  bitten  from 
the  slice.  The  napkin  may  be  used  to  wipe  the  lips,  but 
not  as  a  handkerchief  to  wipe  the  face.  The  elbows  should 
be  kept  near  the  body,  and  no  one  should  lean  or  rest  upon 
the  table.  Drinking  at  meals  should  be  very  moderate  in 
amount,  but  a  few  swallows  at  a  time.  Tea  or  coffee  should 
not  be  poured  out  to  be  drunk  from  a  saucer.  The  teaspoon 
should  not  be  left  in  the  cup,  but  at  its  side,  in  the  saucer. 
Drinking,  like  eating,  should  be  noiseless. 

The  knife,  fork,  and  spoon  should  be  used  gracefully,  and 
not  rudely  grasped.  Food  that  can  be  eaten  with  the  fork 
should  not  be  eaten  with  the  spoon.  The  knife  should  not 
be  used  to  convey  food  to  the  mouth.  Coughing,  spitting, 
blowing  the  nose,  stroking  the  hair,  etc.,  are  highly  improper 
at  meals,  and  can  be  generally  avoided.  These  simple  prin- 
ciples of  behavior,  and  many  more  which  will  readily  occur 
to  the  teacher,  should  be  inculcated  in  the  minds  and  habits 


SCHOOL   ETIQUETTE  201 

of  boys  and  girls.  Most  children  are  ready  and  willing  to 
learn  what  is  proper. 

Care  of  the  Person. — Neatness  of  person  and  attire  are 
matters  which  should  receive  constant  and  careful  attention. 
The  face,  neck,  and  ears,  and  the  hands  and  wrists  require 
frequent  washing  and  brisk  rubbing.  The  nails  should  be 
regularly  trimmed,  and  the  finger-tips  cleansed  with  a  nail- 
brush. Teeth  that  are  not  regularly  brushed  are  offensive, 
and  are  apt  to  become  carious.  The  hair  should  be  carefully 
combed  and  brushed. 

The  clothing,  whatever  its  quality,  should  be  kept  clean 
by  frequent  brushing.  Boots  and  shoes  require  especial  care 
in  order  that  they  may  be  presentable ;  they  should  be  kept 
well  polished  and  free  from  dust  and  mud.  The  linen 
should  be  frequently  changed.  Soiled  cuffs  and  collars 
detract  greatly  from  the  appearance.  The  hat  should  not 
be  abused  or  neglected.  If  dark  in  color,  it  will  show  dust 
easily.  The  following  verses  from  a  poem  by  Dr.  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes  contain  sensible  hints  upon  the  subject 
of  dress : 

"  From  little  matters  let  us  pass  to  less, 
And  lightly  touch  the  mysteries  of  dress  ; 
The  outward  forms  the  inner  man  reveal, 
We  guess  the  pulp  before  we  eat  the  peel. 
One  single  precept  might  the  whole  condense  — 
Be  sure  your  tailor  is  a  man  of  sense ; 
But  add  a  little  care,  or  decent  pride, 
And  always  err  upon  the  sober  side. 
Wear  seemly  gloves  ;  not  black,  nor  yet  too  light, 
And  least  of  all  the  pair  that  once  was  white. 
Have  a  good  hat.    The  secret  of  your  looks 
Lies  with  the  beaver  in  Canadian  brooks. 
Virtue  may  flourish  in  an  old  cravat, 
But  man  and  nature  scorn  the  shocking  hat. 
Be  shy  of  breastpins  :  plain,  well- ironed  white, 
With  small  pearl  buttons — two  of  them  in  sight, 
Is  always  genuine,  while  your  gems  may  pass, 
Though  real  diamonds,  for  ignoble  glass." 


202  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Gow's  Morals  and  Manners  reproduces  from  an  old  peri- 
odical for  boys  and  girls  an  anecdote  illustrative  of  the 
impression  produced  and  the  influence  exerted  by  good 
manners  in  dress  and  in  conduct.  It  is  as  follows : 

A  gentleman  advertised  for  a  boy  to  assist  him  in  his 
office,  and  nearly  fifty  applicants  presented  themselves  to 
him.  Out  of  the  whole  number  he,  in  a  short  time,  selected 
one  and  dismissed  the  rest. 

"  I  should  like  to  know,"  said  a  friend,  "  on  what  ground 
you  selected  that  boy,  who  had  not  a  single  recommenda- 
tion ?  " 

"  You  are  mistaken,"  said  the  gentleman ;  "  he  had  a  great 
many.  He  wiped  his  feet  when  he  came  in,  and  closed  the 
door  after  him,  showing  that  he  was  careful.  He  gave  up 
his  seat  instantly  to  that  lame  old  man,  showing  he  was 
kind  and  thoughtful.  He  took  off  his  cap  when  he  came 
in,  and  answered  my  questions  promptly  and  respectfully, 
showing  he  was  polite  and  gentlemanly.  He  picked  up  the 
book  which  I  had  purposely  laid  on  the  floor,  and  replaced 
it  on  the  table,  while  all  the  rest  stepped  over  it,  or  shoved 
it  aside ;  and  he  waited  quietly  for  his  turn,  instead  of  push- 
ing and  crowding,  showing  that  he  was  honest  and  orderly. 
When  I  talked  with  him  I  noticed  that  his  clothes  were 
carefully  brushed,  his  hair  in  nice  order,  and  his  teeth  as 
white  as  milk ;  and  when  he  wrote  his  name,  I  noticed  that 
his  finger  nails  were  clean,  instead  of  being  tipped  with  jet, 
like  that  handsome  little  fellow's  in  the  blue  jacket.  Don't 
you  call  those  things  letters  of  recommendation?  I  do; 
and  I  would  give  more  for  what  I  can  tell  about  a  boy  by 
using  my  eyes  ten  minutes  than  for  all  the  fine  letters  he 
can  bring  me." 

Washington's  Rules  of  Civility.  —  The  earliest  manuscript 
that  is  preserved  of  Washington's  papers  is  a  writing  book 
of  thirty  pages,  in  which,  at  about  the  age  of  fourteen  years, 
he  copied  a  large,  number  of  maxims  of  deportment,  entitled 
Rules  of  Civility. 


SCHOOL  ETIQUETTE  203 

These  simple  exercises  are  an  index  to  the  character 
and  habits  of  the  Father  of  his  Country.  To  his  unfailing 
courtesy  and  consideration  for  others  was  due  much  of  his 
great  success  in  life.  Apart  from  the  lively  interest  which 
the  Rules  of  Civility  possess,  as  a  memorial  of  the  youth  of 
so  eminent  a  character  in  the  history  of  the  world,  they  are 
generally  valuable  as  a  guide  for  the  manners  and  morals  of 
the  youth  of  to-day. 

In  the  following  "  rules,"  selected  from  the  exercise  book 
of  Washington's  boyhood,  the  spelling,  capitalization,  and 
punctuation  have  been  changed  somewhat,  to  correspond 
with  modern  usage.  The  language  itself  is  quaint  at  times, 
though  always  plain  in  its  meaning  and  simple  in  its  con- 
struction : 

1.  Eeproach  none  for  the  infirmities  of  nature,  nor  delight 
to  put  them  that  have  in  mind  thereof. 

2.  Show  not  yourself  glad  at  the  misfortune  of  another, 
though  he  were  your  enemy. 

3.  Superfluous   compliments  and  all  affectation  of  cere- 
mony are  to  be  avoided,  yet  where  due  they  are  not  to  be 
neglected. 

4.  They  that  are  in  dignity  or  in  office  have  in  all  places 
precedence ;  but  whilst  they  are  young  they  ought  to  respect 
those  that  are  their  equals  in  birth  or  other  qualities,  though 
they  have  no  public  charge. 

5.  Let  your  discourse  with  men  of  business  be  short  and 
comprehensive. 

6.  In  writing  or  speaking,  give  to  every  person  his  due 
title,  according  to  his  degree  and  the  custom  of  the  place. 

7.  Do  not  express  joy  before  one  sick  or  in  pain,  for  that 
contrary  passion  will  aggravate  his  misery. 

8.  Wherein  you  reprove  another,  be  unblamable  yourself ; 
for  example  is  more  prevalent  than  precepts. 

9.  Be  not  hasty  to  believe  flying  reports  to  the  disparage- 
ment of  any. 


204  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

10.  Bun  not  in  the  streets,  neither  go  too  slowly  nor  with 
mouth  open.     Go  not  shaking  your  arms,  stamping,  or  shuf- 
fling ;  nor  pull  up  your  stockings  in  the  street.     Walk  not 
upon  the  toes,  nor  in  a  dancing  or  skipping  manner,  nor  yet 
with  measured  steps.      Strike  not  the  heels  together,  nor 
stoop  when  there  is  no  occasion. 

11.  Eat  not   in  the   streets,   nor   in   the   house   out  of 
season. 

12.  Associate  yourself  with  men  of  good  quality  if  you 
esteem  your  own  reputation ;  for  'tis  better  to  be  alone  than 
in  bad  company. 

13.  Let  your  conversation  be  without  malice  or  envy,  for 
'tis  a  sign  of  a  tractable  and  commendable  nature;  and  in 
all  causes  of  passion,  admit  reason  to  govern. 

14.  Speak  not  of  doleful  things  in  a  time  of  mirth  or  at 
the  table;   speak  not  of  melancholy  things,  as  death  and 
wounds ;  and  if   others   mention  them,  change  if  you  can 
the  discourse.     Tell  not  your  dreams,  but  to  your  intimate 
friend. 

15.  A  man  ought  not  to  value  himself  of  his  achievements 
or  rare  qualities,  his  riches,  titles,  virtue,  or  kindred ;  but  he 
need  not  speak  meanly  of  himself. 

16.  Speak  not  injurious  words,  neither  in  jest  nor  earnest. 
Scoff  at  none,  although  they  give  occasion. 

17.  Detract  not  from  others,  neither  be  excessive  in  com- 
mending. 

18.  Eeprehend  not  the  imperfections  of  others,  for  that 
belongs  to  parents,  masters,  and  superiors. 

19.  Gaze  not  at  the  marks  or  blemishes  of  others,  and 
ask  not  how  they  came.     What  you  may  speak  in  secret  to 
your  friend,  deliver  not  before  others. 

20.  Speak  not  in  an  unknown  tongue  in  company,  but  in 
your  own  language. 

21.  Think  before  you  speak.     Pronounce  not  imperfectly, 
nor  bring  out  your  words  too  hastily,   but  orderly   and 
distinctly. 


SCHOOL   ETIQUETTE  205 

22.  When  another  speaks,  be  attentive  yourself  and  dis- 
turb not  the  audience.     If  any  hesitate  in  his  words,  help 
him  not  nor  prompt  him  without  desired;   interrupt  him 
not,  nor  answer  him  till  his  speech  be  ended. 

23.  While  you  are  talking,  point  not  with  your  finger  at 
him  of  whom  you  discourse,  nor  approach  too  near  him  to 
whom  you  talk,  especially  to  his  face. 

24.  Treat  with  men  at  fit  times  about  business,  and  whis- 
per not  in  the  company  of  others. 

25.  Be  not  apt  to  relate  news  if  you  know  not  the  truth 
thereof.     In  discoursing  of  things  you  have  heard,  name 
not  your  author  always.     A  secret  discover  not  (reveal  not). 

26.  Be  not  tedious  in  discourse  or  in  reading,  unless  you 
find  the  company  pleased  therewith. 

27.  Be  not  curious  to  know  the  affairs  of  others,  neither 
approach  to  those  that  speak  in  private. 

28.  Undertake   not  what  you   cannot  perform,   but  be 
careful  to  keep  your  promise. 

29.  In  disputes,  be  not  so  desirous  to  overcome  as  not  to 
give  liberty  to  each  one  to  deliver  his  opinion ;  and  submit 
to  the  judgment  of  the  major  part,  especially  if  they  are 
judges  of  the  dispute. 

30.  Be  not  tedious  in  discourse ;  make  not  many  digres- 
sions, nor  repeat  often  the  same  manner  of  discourse. 

31.  Drink  not,  nor  talk,  with  your  mouth  full,  neither 
gaze  about  you  while  you  are  drinking. 

32.  Be  not  angry  at  table,  whatever  happens ;  and  if  you 
have  reason  to  be  so,  show  it  not.     Put  on  a  cheerful  coun- 
tenance, especially  if  there  be  strangers ;   for  good  humor 
makes  one  dish  of  meat  a  feast. 

33.  When  you  speak  of  God  or  His  attributes,  let  it  be 
seriously,  and  with  words  of  reverence.     Honor  and  obey 
your  natural  parents,  although  they  be  poor. 

34.  Let  your  recreations  be  manful,  not  sinful. 

35.  Labor  to  keep  alive  in  your  breast  that  little  spark  of 
celestial  fire  called  conscience. 


206  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

36.  In  the  presence  of  others,  sing  not  to  yourself  with  a 
humming  noise,  nor  drum  with  your  ringers  or  feet. 

37.  If  you  cough,  sneeze,  sigh,  or  yawn,  do  it  not  loud, 
but  privately ;  and  speak  not  in  your  yawning,  but  put  your 
handkerchief  or  hand  before  your  face,  and  turn  aside. 

38.  Sleep  not  when  others  speak;   sit  not  when  others 
stand ;  speak  not  when  you  should  hold  your  peace ;  walk 
not  when  others  stop. 

39.  When  you  sit  down,  keep  your  feet  firm  and  even, 
without  putting  one  on  the  other  or  crossing  them. 

40.  Eead  no  letters,  books,  or  papers  in  company;  but 
when  there  is  a  necessity  for  the  doing  of  it,  you  must  ask 
leave.     Come  not  near  the  books  or  writings  of  another  so 
as  to  read  them,  unless  desired,  or  give  your  opinion  of 
them  unasked ;  also,  look  not  nigh  when  another  is  writing 
a  letter. 

41.  The  gestures  of  the  body  must  be  suited  to  the  dis- 
course you  are  upon. 


CHAPTER   XI 
SCHOOL  CELEBRATIONS  AND  OBSERVANCES 

General  Holidays  and  School  Celebrations.  —  It  is  a  very 
common  saying  that  Americans,  as  a  people,  have  too  few 
holidays ;  that  the  routine  of  our  lives  is  not  sufficiently 
broken  by  periodical  celebrations  and  observances  of  a 
national  character.  We  enter  generally  and  heartily  into 
the  spirit  of  Thanksgiving  and  Independence  days,  deriving 
much  good  from  them ;  and  it  is  claimed  that  there  should 
be  more  such  days  in  our  calendar.  Certain  State  holidays 
have  been  instituted  within  recent  years,  with  a  view  to 
supplying  this  supposed  need.  It  is  difficult  for  one  part  of 
a  community  engaged  in  business  or  labor  to  arrange  for  a 
holiday  unless  the  observance  be  general,  since  the  cessation 
of  one  form  of  industry  is  apt  to  cause  serious  inconvenience 
to  others ;  for  the  activities  of  the  business  world  are  closely 
related  one  to  another. 

The  school,  however,  is  not  so  connected  with  the  indus- 
trial world  as  to  be  limited  to  the  observance  of  general 
holidays  and  commemorative  occasions.  In  the  school,  the 
celebration  of  certain  days  may  involve  no  real  loss  to  the 
school  work,  but  only  a  pleasing  change  in  its  form.  An 
alternation  of  different  forms  of  labor  is  always  restful,  and 
may  be  very  profitable.  Often  the  school  celebration  affords 
an  opportunity  for  the  particular  form  of  training  which 
the  pupil  most  needs.  The  exercises  of  the  celebration  or 
observance  may  be  of  various  length,  sometimes  taking  the 
place  of  a  single  recitation,  and  at  other  times  lasting 
through  several  class  periods. 

207 


208  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Authors'  Birthdays.  —  The  celebration  of  the  birthdays  of 
notable  American  authors  by  appropriate  exercises  of  a 
special  character  in  the  public  schools  has  been  of  incalcu- 
lable good.  Such  variations  from  the  routine  of  the  school 
lend  a  charm  of  variety  to  the  pupil's  work,  while  (since  they 
are  easily  arranged,  and  require  little  time  for  their  prepa- 
ration) they  do  not  seriously  interrupt  or  detract  from  the 
regularity  of  study  and  recitation.  The  influence  of  these 
school  celebrations  is  to  develop  in  the  pupils  a  strong  spirit 
of  patriotism  and  of  nationality,  as  well  as  to  lead  them  to  a 
better  acquaintance  with,  and  appreciation  of,  our  literature. 

Such  occasions  are  exceedingly  interesting,  and  have  a  ten- 
dency to  enlist  to  a  greater  degree  the  attention  of  the  com- 
munity to  the  school  work.  Generally  they  attract  to  the 
schoolroom  many  who  would  not  otherwise  visit  it;  and 
none  can  fail  to  derive  new  inspiration  from  them.  While 
the  most  enjoyable  and  profitable  exercises  of  this  character 
are  those  of  the  high  schools  of  cities,  and  of  the  advanced 
grades  in  the  rural  schools,  the  observance  of  authors'  birth- 
days may  be  extended,  in  simpler  and  briefer  form,  to  the 
lower  grades  in  all  schools.  Even  the  smallest  pupil  will 
be  interested  in  an  anecdote  relating  to  a  great  American. 
No  single  programme  of  exercises  will  prove  applicable  alike 
to  all  grades  and  to  all  schools.  The  teacher  who-  prepares 
the  programme  for  the  more  advanced  grades  should  arrange 
it  for  the  general  participation  of  his  pupils.  A  few  pieces 
of  music  may  be  rendered  by  individual  pupils,  or  by  quar- 
tets, but  the  greater  number  of  songs  should  be  sung  by  the 
school.  A  few  essays  of  some  length  may  be  prepared,  but 
brief  recitations  or  anecdotes  should  be  given  by  the  majority 
of  the  pupils. 

Presentations  of  Portraits. — It  is  desirable  that  schools  be 
supplied  with  pictures,  and  portraits  of  American  authors 
are  especially  appropriate  for  this  purpose.  Pictures  are 
generally  procured  for  schoolrooms  by  voluntary  contribu- 
tions of  money  in  small  amounts.  No  better  occasion  for 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND   OBSERVANCES     209 

the  addition  to  the  schoolroom  of  such  a  treasure  can  be 
presented  than  that  of  the  author's  birthday.  If  the  portrait 
be  procured  in  advance,  its  presentation  to  the  school  can  be 
made  a  very  pretty  and  graceful  incident  of  the  celebration. 
The  pupils  may  select  one  of  their  number  to  make  a  brief 
address  of  presentation,  and  the  teacher  may  respond  to  it, 
or  may  appoint  some  person  present  (a  school  officer  would 
be  a  very  suitable  person  for  this)  to  receive  the  portrait  in 
the  name  of  the  school. 

The  music  for  such  occasions  should  be  national  and  patri- 
otic; and  it  is  especially  appropriate  to  select  any  songs 
relating  to  the  author  in  whose  honor  the  celebration  is 
held. 

Suggestions  for  Longfellow's  Birthday. — Among  the  more 
popular  of  Longfellow's  short  poems  are  The  Village  Black- 
smith, Excelsior,  The  Arsenal  at  Springfield,  Seaweed,  The 
Day  is  Donej  The  Builders,  The  Jewish  Cemetery  at  Newport, 
The  Golden  Milestone,  The  Children's  Hour,  Robert  Burns, 
Paul  Revere' 's  Hide,  and  The  Bells  of  San  Bias.  The  last- 
mentioned  was  his  last  poetical  composition.  These  and 
many  others  are  admirably  adapted  for  school  recitations. 

From  the  longer  poems  may  be  taken  extracts  of  some 
length.  Brief  paragraphs  and  stanzas  may  be  selected  from 
both  the  long  and  the  short  poems  of  this  author  for  general 
exercises  in  recitation.  Following  are  a  few  of  these,  and 
the  number  may  be  easily  extended  by  any  teacher. 

Ships  that  pass  in  the  night,  and  speak  each  other  in  passing, 
Only  a  signal  shown  and  a  distant  voice  in  the  darkness  ; 
So  on  the  ocean  of  life  we  pass  and  speak  one  another, 
Only  a  look  and  a  voice,  then  darkness  again  and  a  silence. 

—  From  Elizabeth. 

As  torrents  in  summer, 

Half  dried  in  their  channels, 

Suddenly  rise,  though  the 

Sky  is  still  cloudless, 

For  rain  has  been  falling 

Far  off  at  their  f  ountains ; 
sen.  INT.  &  DUX. — 14 


210  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

So  hearts  that  are  fainting 
Grow  full  to  o'erflowing, 
And  they  that  behold  it 
Marvel,  and  know  not 
That  God  at  their  fountains 
Far  off  has  been  raining  ! 

—  From  The  Saga  of  King  Olaf. 


This  is  the  forest  primeval ;  but  where  are  the  hearts  that  beneath  it 
Leaped.like  the  roe,  when  he  hears  in  the  woodland  the  voice  of  the 

huntsman  ? 

Where  is  the  thatch-roofed  village,  the  home  of  Acadian  farmers,  — 
Men  whose  lives  glided  on  like  rivers  that  water  the  woodlands, 
Darkened  by  shadows  of  earth,  but  reflecting  an  image  of  heaven  ? 
Waste  are  those  pleasant  farms,  and  the  farmers  forever  departed ! 
Scattered  like  dust  and  leaves,  when  the  mighty  blasts  of  October 
Seize  them,  and  whirl  them  aloft,  and  sprinkle  them  far  o'er  the  ocean. 

—  From  Evangeline. 


But  why,  you  ask  me,  should  this  tale  be  told 

To  men  grown  old,  or  who  are  growing  old  ? 

It  is  too  late  !     Ah,  nothing  is  too  late 

Till  the  tired  heart  shall  cease  to  palpitate. 

Cato  learned  Greek  at  eighty ;  Soph'ocles 

Wrote  his  grand  Oed'ipus,  and  Simon 'ides 

Bore  off  the  prize  of  verse  from  his  compeers, 

When  each  had  numbered  more  than  fourscore  years, 

And  Theophras'tus,  at  fourscore  and  ten, 

Had  but  begun  his  Characters  of  Men. 

Chaucer,  at  Woodstock  with  the  nightingales, 

At  sixty  wrote  the  Canterbury  Tales  ; 

Goethe,  at  Weimar,  toiling  to  the  last, 

Completed  Faust  when  eighty  years  were  past. 

These  are,  indeed,  exceptions  ;  but  they  show 

How  far  the  gulf-stream  of  our  youth  may  flow 

Into  the  arctic  regions  of  our  lives, 

Where  little  else  than  life  itself  survives. 

—  From  Moritu'ri  Saluta'mus 
(We  who  are  about  to  die  salute  you). 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND  OBSERVANCES     211 

Turn,  turn,  my  wheel !    The  human  race, 
Of  every  tongue,  of  every  place, 
Caucasian,  Coptic,  or  Malay, 
All  that  inhabit  this  great  earth, 
Whatever  be  their  rank  or  worth, 
Are  kindred  and  allied  by  birth, 
And  made  of  the  same  clay. 

—  From  Ker'amos. 

Silently,  one  by  one,  in  the  infinite  meadows  of  heaven, 
Blossomed  the  lovely  stars,  the  forget-me-nots  of  the  angels. 

—  From  Evangeline. 

Slowly  as  out  of  the  heavens,  with  apocalyptical  splendors, 
Sank  the  City  of  God,  in  the  vision  of  John  the  Apostle, 
So,  with  its  cloudy  walls  of  chrysolite,  jasper,  and  sapphire, 
Sank  the  broad  red  sun,  and  over  its  turrets  uplifted 
Glimmered  the  golden  reed  of  the  angel  who  measured  the  city. 
—  From  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish. 

"Thank  God,"  the  Theologian  said, 
"  The  reign  of  violence  is  dead, 
Or  dying  surely  from  the  world  ; 
While  love  triumphant  reigns  instead, 
And  in  a  brighter  sky  o'erhead 
His  blessed  banners  are  unfurled. 
And  most  of  all  thank  God  for  this : 
The  war  and  waste  of  clashing  creeds 
Now  end  hi  words,  and  not  in  deeds  ; 
And  no  one  suffers  loss,  or  bleeds, 
For  thoughts  that  men  call  heresies." 

—  From  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 

In  the  elder  days  of  Art, 
Builders  wrought  with  greatest  care 

Each  minute  and  unseen  part : 
For  the  gods  see  everywhere. 

Let  us  do  our  work  as  well, 

Both  the  unseen  and  the  seen  ; 
Make  the  house,  where  gods  may  dwell, 

Beautiful,  entire,  and  clean. 

—  From  The  Builders. 


212  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Happy  he  whom  neither  wealth  nor  fashion 
Nor  the  march  of  the  encroaching  city 

Drives  an  exile 
From  the  hearth  of  his  ancestral  homestead. 

We  may  build  more  splendid  habitations, 

Fill  our  rooms  with  paintings  and  with  sculptures ; 

But  we  cannot 
Buy  with  gold  the  old  associations. 

—  From  The  Golden  Milestone. 

The  mighty  pyramids  of  stone 
That  wedge-like  cleave  the  desert  airs, 

When  nearer  seen,  and  better  known, 
Are  but  gigantic  flights  of  stairs. 

The  heights  by  great  men  reached  and  kept 

Were  not  attained  by  sudden  flight, 
But  they,  while  their  companions  slept, 

Were  toiling  upward  in  the  night. 

—  From  The  Ladder  of  St.  Augustine. 

A  number  of  Longfellow's  poems  have  been  set  to  music. 
Among  these  are  The  Bridge,  The  Rainy  Day,  The  Old 
Clock  on  the  Stairs,  A  Psalm  of  Life,  The  Reaper  and  the 
Flowers,  and  Into  the  Silent  Land. 

Some  Notable  Birthdays.  —  The  following  brief  list  of  the 
birthdays  of  notable  American  authors  will  be  found  con- 
venient for  reference.  For  the  birthday  of  Hawthorne, 
which  occurs  at  a  time  when  the  schools  are  closed,  can 
be  substituted  some  convenient  day  of  the  school  year : 

January  11,  1825 Bayard  Taylor. 

February  22,  1819 James  Russell  Lowell. 

February  27,  1807 Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow. 

April  3,  1783  .........  Washington  Irving. 

April  15,  1814 John  Lothrop  Motley. 

May  4,  1796 William  Hickling  Prescott. 

May  25,  1803      ........  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

June  14,  1812     .     .     .     ...     .    .  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe. 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND  OBSERVANCES     213 

July  4,  1804 Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

August  29,  1801) Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

October  3,  1800 George  Bancroft. 

November  3,  1794 William  Cullen  Bryant. 

November  29,  1832 Louisa  M.  Alcott. 

December  17,  1807 John  Greenleaf  Whittier. 

Birthdays  of  American  Statesmen.  —  The  observance  of 
birthdays  of  noted  Americans  need  not  be  limited  to  those  of 
authors.  In  fact,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  some  such  school 
observances  relate  to  eminent  statesmen,  especially  to  those 
who  impressed  their  character  and  their  wisdom  upon  our 
nation  in  its  formative  period.  So  many  are  the  illustrious 
names  of  American  statesmen,  that  care  must  be  taken 
to  select  only  the  most  notable  of  these.  Men  now  living 
should  be  excluded  from  the  list. 

The  birthday  of  Washington,  the  Father  of  his  Country, 
is  now  a  legal  holiday  in  forty-two  States.  That  of  Lincoln, 
the  Emancipator,  has  been  legalized  as  such  in  Illinois.  The 
birthday  of  Webster,  the  Expounder  of  the  Constitution,  has 
been  observed  in  many  schools  within  recent  years,  and  so 
has  that  of  Franklin,  the  statesman  and  philosopher.  Jeffer- 
son, the  author  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  is  worthy 
of  commemoration  in  like  manner. 

The  essays  prepared  for  such  occasions  should  be  largely 
of  an  historical  character.  The  salient  points  of  the  careers 
of  these  statesmen  should  be  brought  out.  These  should 
form  the  topics  of  separate  compositions,  in  order  that  the 
subjects  may  be  divided  among  a  number,  and  select  para- 
graphs should  be  read  from  notable  and  appropriate  public 
documents. 

Suggestions  for  Washington's  Birthday. — From  a  variety 
of  programmes  which  have  been  followed  in  many  schools 
on  the  occasion  of  Washington's  birthday,  the  following  is 
here  reproduced,  not  as  a  model  to  be  implicitly  followed, 
but  as  offering  suggestions  which  may  be  utilized  in  arrang- 
ing the  exercises  in  a  variety  of  forms : 


214  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 


PROGRAMME  FOR  WASHINGTON'S  BIRTHDAY. 

Song  by  the  school  or  by  a  quartet  —  Columbia,  the  Gem  of 
the  Ocean. 

Essay  of  four  minutes  —  Washington's  Childhood 

General  Exercise  —  Washington's  Rules  of  Civility.  (These, 
being  brief,  can  be  distributed  among  a  considerable 
number  of  pupils,  who  may  rise  and  repeat  them  at  their 
seats,  in  the  order  of  numbers  drawn  by  them  from  a 
basket  of  number  cards.) 

Essay  of  four  minutes  —  Washington's  Military  Career. 

Instrumental  Music  —  Yankee  Doodle,  with  Variations. 

Essay  of  four  minutes  —  Washington  as  a  Statesman. 

General  Exercise  —  Estimates  of  Washington's  Life  and 
Character.  (Brief  extracts  upon  this  subject  from  standard 
works,  including  Byron's  tribute  in  his  Ode  to  Napoleon,  and 
paragraphs  from  the  eulogies  of  orators  and  the  summaries 
of  historians  and  biographers.) 

Instrumental  Music  —  President's  March,  or  song  by  the 
school  —  Hail  Columbia. 

Select  Readings  —  The  Battle  of  Trenton,  and  Washington 
at  Princeton,  from  Ford's  Poems  of  History.  (For  these 
may  be  substituted  any  other  suitable  poems  relating  to 
Washington's  career.) 

Song  by  the  School  —  The  Grave  of  Washington. 

General  Exercise  —  Selected  paragraphs  from  Washington's 
Farewell  Address. 

Song  by  the  School  —  America. 


Suggestions  for  Lincoln's  Birthday. — For  the  celebration 
of  Lincoln's  birthday,  the  following  "leaflets"  have  been 
used  by  many  schools.  They  may  be  supplemented  by  addi- 
tional selections  from  the  notable  utterances  of  Lincoln. 
The  exercises  should  be  interspersed  with  appropriate  music. 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND  OBSERVANCES     215 
LINCOLN   LEAFLETS 


Two  tall  and  beautiful  monuments,  rising  from  the  soil  of 
Illinois,  one  by  the  Sangamon  river  and  one  by  Lake  Michi- 
gan, are  of  special  interest  to  students  of  American  history. 
They  mark  the  last  resting  places  of  the  two  great  statesmen 
on  whom  was  centered  the  attention  of  America  —  and  in- 
deed of  the  civilized  world  —  in  the  years  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  great  war.  Douglas  triumphed  over  Lincoln  in 
1858,  and  Lincoln  triumphed  over  Douglas  in  1860.  They 
were  personal  friends.  The  issues  on  which  these  statesmen 
were  arrayed  belong  wholly  to  the  past.  They  were  squarely 
presented  and  earnestly  debated,  and  were  decided,  as  Amer- 
ican issues  must  be,  by  the  people.  All  concede  the  great- 
ness and  the  goodness  of  President  Lincoln,  and  his  name 
is  far  removed  from  the  divisions  and  questions  of  to-day. 
Teachers  and  pupils  unite  in  exercises  of  affectionate  remem- 
brance, and  repeat  the  sentiments  with  which  he  touched 
the  chords  of  humanity  and  spoke  to  all  the  future. 


ii 

The  most  remarkable  popular  debate  in  American  annals, 
and  in  some  respects  the  most  remarkable  in  all  history,  was 
that  of  the  Senatorial  campaign  in  Illinois  in  1858.  The  ex- 
cited interest  with  which  it  was  attended,  its  protraction 
through  many  weeks  and  through  widely  different  localities 
and  communities,  the  rush  of  many  thousands  to  hear,  the 
endless  reproduction  in  the  newspapers  of  every  State, 
the  comments  of  the  millions  who  practically  constituted 
the  audience,  the  sharply  drawn  issues,  the  perfect  candor 
of  the  debaters  (who  answered  each  the  most  searching 
questions  of  his  opponent),  the  momentous  character  of  the 
conclusions  drawn,  —  all  these  strange  accompaniments  ren- 


216  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

dered  the  Senatorial  canvass  in  reality  a  canvass  before  the 
Nation  and  before  the  world  —  a  canvass  which  can  be 
likened  to  no  other,  and  one  which  predetermined  at  once 
the  choice  of  the  two  champions  as  standard  bearers  in  the 
Presidential  canvass  of  two  years  later. 

in 

Singularly  contrasted  were  the  speakers  in  the  Great 
Debate.  Proud  in  the  consciousness  of  his  powers,  match- 
less in  eloquence,  small  in  figure  but  splendid  in  the  mag- 
netism of  his  presence,  graceful  in  gesture,  cold,  self-possessed, 
and  lofty  in  scorn  or  glowing  in  the  passion  of  appeal,  was 
Judge  Douglas,  the  Little  Giant,  the  Senator  of  a  dozen 
years,  the  hitherto  unchallenged  master  in  the  field  of  con- 
troversy. Opposed  to  him  was  the  Rail  Splitter.  Six  feet 
three  in  his  stockings,  lank  and  ungainly,  unprepossessing 
of  visage  save  in  the  kindliness  of  his  smile,  without  art  or 
artificial  polish,  but  with  earnestness  and  solemnity  born  of 
the  great  crisis,  with  honesty  of  purpose  that  none  in  all 
the  throng  could  question,  and  with  homely  phrases  that 
reached  the  heart,  was  Abraham  Lincoln,  who  had  dared  to 
challenge  the  Little  Giant  to  a  joint  discussion.  Answering 
to  the  polished  oratory  of  the  Senator  were  the  solemn  ear- 
nestness and  the  quaint  and  irresistible  humor  of  this  man 
of  the  people. 

IV 

Very  remarkable  was  the  political  situation  in  1858.  The 
Democratic  party  was  rent  in  twain.  At  the  end  of  one 
faction  was  the  Administration.  The  leader  of  the  other 
faction  was  Judge  Douglas.  Opposed  was  the  young  and 
rapidly  growing  Republican  party,  — the  old  Whig  party  had 
gone  out  of  existence.  It  was  thus  a  three-sided  issue,  for 
the  Republicans  met  their  divided  opponents  with  a  solid 
front.  The  positions  of  the  three  opposing  parties  may  be 
stated  briefly  thus : 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND  OBSERVANCES     217 

It  is  both  the  right  and  the  duty  of  Congress  to  recognize 
the  institution  of  slavery  in  the  Territories. 

—  The  Administration  Faction. 

It  is  both  the  right  and  the  duty  of  Congress  to  prohibit 
the  institution  of  slavery  in  all  the  Territories. 

—  The  Republican  Party. 

It  is  neither  the  right  nor  the  duty  of  Congress  to  recog- 
nize or  to  prohibit  the  institution  of  slavery  in  the  Terri- 
tories. The  matter  must  be  decided  by  the  people  of  each 
Territory  for  themselves.  —  The  Douglas  Faction. 

In  their  sentiments  the  Kepublicans  'were  no  less  divided 
than  the  Democrats,  though  they  were  united  in  action. 
"  Of  strange,  discordant,  and  often  hostile  elements,"  said 
Mr.  Lincoln,  "we  gathered  from  the  four  winds."  Senti- 
ments held  by  members  of  that  party  in  northern  Illinois 
were  vehemently  repudiated  by  members  in  the  central  and 
southern  parts.  To  unite  in  action  people  of  opposing 
views  was  the  task  set  before  both  debaters.  Never  was 
presented  to  public  men  a  greater  temptation  to  equivocate 
and  to  play  a  double  part ;  and  yet  never  was  debate  con- 
ducted with  greater  candor  on  both  sides.  Perhaps  never 
before  was  the  American  public  so  thoroughly  instructed 
upon  the  real  character  of  the  issues  to  be  decided. 


The  Presidental  campaign  of  1860  was  but  a  continuation 
of  the  same  debate  by  the  same  debaters.  To  complicate 
matters  still  further,  a  fourth  party  arose,  which  was  non- 
committal as  to  policy,  proclaiming  as  its  platform  only 
"  the  Union,  the  Constitution,  and  the  enforcement  of  the 
laws."  A  popular  majority  was  impossible  under  the  cir- 
cumstances. Mr.  Lincoln  received  a  plurality  of  the  popu- 
lar votes,  and  a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes,  and  was 
elected. 


218  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

VI 

The  burden  of  responsibility  borne  by  President  Lincoln, 
the  prolonged  and  terrible  war  in  which  he  was  engaged, 
the  freeing  of  the  slaves,  the  death  of  the  President  in  the 
hour  of  final  victory  —  all  these  are  matters  known  to  all, 
and  are  personally  remembered  by  very  many  of  the  people 
of  to-day.  President  Lincoln's  public  addresses  reveal, 
more  perfectly  than  description  can  portray,  the  character 
of  that  remarkable  man  who  stood  at  the  helm  of  our  ship 
of  state  through  the  storm  and  peril  of  a  gigantic  war,  of 
that  man  of  whom  his  conquered  foes  have  unfeignedly 
said,  "  He  was  our  best  friend." 

VII 

t£t  A  house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand.7  I  believe 
this  government  cannot  endure  permanently  half  slave  and 
half  free.  I  do  not  expect  the  Union  to  be  dissolved,  I  do 
not  expect  the  house  to  fall,  but  I  do  expect  it  will  cease  to 
be  divided."  —  Address  at  Springfield,  June  17,  1858. 

VIII 

"  My  friend  has  said  to  me  that  I  am  a  poor  hand  to  quote 
Scripture.  I  will  try  it  again,  however.  It  is  said  in  one 
of  the  admonitions  of  our  Lord,  '  As  your  Father  in  heaven 
is  perfect,  be  ye  also  perfect.'  The  Savior,  I  suppose,  did 
not  expect  that  any  human  creature  could  be  perfect  as  the 
Father  in  heaven.  But  he  said, l  As  your  Father  in  heaven 
is  perfect,  be  ye  also  perfect.'  He  set  that  up  as  a  stand- 
ard ;  and  he  who  did  most  towards  reaching  that  standard 
attained  the  highest  degree  of  moral  perfection.  So  I  say 
in  relation  to  the  principle  that  all  men  are  created  equal,  let 
it  be  as  nearly  reached  as  we  can.  If  we  cannot  give  free- 
dom to  every  creature,  let  us  do  nothing  that  will  impose 
slavery  upon  any  other  creature." 

—  Address  at  Chicago,  July  10,  1858. 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND  OBSERVANCES     219 


IX 

(l  Now,  it  happens  that  we  meet  together  once  every  year, 
some  time  about  the  4th  of  July,  for  some  reason  or  other. 
These  4th  of  July  gatherings,  I  suppose,  have  their  uses. 
If  you  will  indulge  me,  I  will  state  what  I  suppose  to  be 
some  of  them. 

"  We  are  now  a  mighty  Nation ;  we  are  thirty,  or  about 
thirty,  millions  of  people,  and  we  own  and  inhabit  about 
one  fifteenth  part  of  the  dry  land  of  the  whole  earth.  We 
run  our  memory  back  over  the  pages  of  history  for  about 
eighty-two  years,  and  we  discover  that  we  were  then  a  very 
small  people  in  point  of  numbers,  vastly  inferior  to  what  we 
are  now,  with  a  vastly  less  extent  of  country,  with  vastly 
less  of  everything  we  deem  desirable  among  men.  We  look 
upon  the  change  as  exceedingly  advantageous  to  us  and  to 
our  posterity,  and  we  fix  upon  something  that  happened 
away  back,  as  in  some  way  or  other  being  connected  with 
this  rise  of  prosperity.  We  find  a  race  of  men  living  in 
that  day  whom  we  claim  as  our  fathers  and  grandfathers. 
They  were  iron  men;  they  fought  for  the  principle  they 
were  contending  for ;  and  we  understood  that  by  what  they 
then  did  it  has  followed  that  the  degree  of  prosperity 
which  we  now  enjoy  has  come  to  us.  We  hold  this  annual 
celebration  to  remind  ourselves  of  all  the  good  done  in  this 
process  of  time,  of  how  it  was  done,  and  who  did  it,  and 
how  we  are  historically  connected  with  it ;  and  we  go  from 
these  meetings  in  better  humor  with  ourselves,  we  feel 
more  attached  the  one  to  the  other,  and  more  firmly  bound 
to  the  country  we  inhabit.  In  every  way  we  are  better 
men,  in  the  age  and  race  and  country  in  which  we  live,  for 
these  celebrations.  But,  after  we  have  done  all  this,  we 
have  not  yet  reached  the  whole.  There  is  something  else 
connected  with  it.  We  have,  besides  these  men  —  de- 
scended by  blood  from  our  ancestors  —  among  us,  perhaps 
half  our  people,  who  are  not  descendants  at  all  of  these 


220  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

men;  they  are  men  who  have  come  from  Europe  —  Ger- 
man, Irish,  French,  and  Scandinavian  —  men  that  have 
come  from  Europe  themselves,  or  whose  ancestors  have 
come  hitherto  and  settled  here,  rinding  themselves  our 
equals  in  all  things.  If  they  look  back  through  this  his- 
tory to  trace  their  connection  with  those  days  by  blood, 
they  find  they  have  none;  they  cannot  carry  themselves 
back  into  that  glorious  epoch  and  make  themselves  feel 
that  they  are  part  of  us.  But  when  they  look  through  that 
old  Declaration  of  Independence,  they  find  that  those  old 
men  say,  '  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that  all 
men  are  created  equal/  and  then  they  feel  that  that  moral 
sentiment,  taught  in  that  day,  evidences  their  relation  to 
those  men,  that  it  is  the  father  of  all  moral  principle  in 
them,  and  that  they  have  a  right  to  claim  it  as  though  they 
were  blood  of  the  blood,  and  flesh  of  the  flesh,  of  the  men 
who  wrote  that  Declaration.  And  so  they  are.  That  is 
the  electric  cord  in  that  Declaration  that  links  the  hearts 
of  patriotic  and  liberty-loving  men  together,  that  will  link 
those  patriotic  hearts  as  long  as  the  love  of  freedom  exists 
in  the  minds  of  men  throughout  the  world." 

—  Address  at  Chicago,  July  10,  1858. 


"I  hold  that  there  is  no  reason  in  the  world  why  the 
Negro  is  not  entitled  to  all  the  natural  rights  enumerated 
in  the  Declaration  of  Independence  —  the  right  to  life,  lib- 
erty, and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  I  hold  that  he  is  as 
much  entitled  to  these  as  the  white  man.  I  agree  with 
Judge  Douglas,  he  is  not  my  equal  in  many  respects; 
certainly  not  in  color,  perhaps  not  in  moral  or  intellectual 
endowment.  But  in  the  right  to  eat,  without  the  leave  of 
anybody  else,  the  bread  which  his  own  hand  earns,  he  is 
my  equal  and  the  equal  of  Judge  Douglas,  and  the  equal  of 
every  living  man."  —  The  Great  Debate;  Ottawa,  Aug.  21,  1858. 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND   OBSERVANCES     221 
XI 

"I  think  the  authors  of  that  notable  instrument  (the 
Declaration  of  Independence)  intended  to  include  all  men, 
but  they  did  not  mean  to  declare  all  men  equal  in  all 
respects.  They  did  not  mean  to  say  all  men  were  equal  in 
color,  size,  intellect,  moral  development,  or  social  capacity. 
They  defined,  with  tolerable  distinctness,  in  what  they  con- 
sider all  men  are  created  equal  —  equal  in  certain  inalien- 
able rights,  among  which  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of 
happiness.  This  they  said,  and  this  they  meant.  They 
did  not  mean  to  assert  the  obvious  untruth  that  all  were 
then  actually  enjoying  that  equality,  or  that  they  were  about 
to  confer  it  immediately  upon  them.  In  fact,  they  had  no 
power  to  confer  such  a  boon.  They  meant  simply  to  declare 
the  right,  so  that  the  enforcement  of  it  might  follow  as  fast 
as  circumstances  should  permit.  They  meant  to  set  up  a 
standard  maxim  for  free  society,  which  should  be  familiar 
to  all;  constantly  referred  to,  constantly  labored  for,  and 
even,  though  never  perfectly  attained,  constantly  approxi- 
mated, and  thereby  constantly  spreading  and  deepening  its 
influence  and  augmenting  the  happiness  and  value  of  life  to 
all  people,  of  all  colors,  everywhere." 

—  The  Great  Debate;  Alton,  Oct.  15,  1858. 

XII 

"  A  duty  devolves  upon  me  which  is  perhaps  greater  than 
that  which  has  devolved  upon  any  other  man  since  the  days 
of  Washington.  He  never  could  have  succeeded  except  for 
the  aid  of  J)ivine  Providence,  upon  which  he  at  all  times  re- 
lied. I  feel  that  I  cannot  succeed  without  the  same  Divine 
aid  which  sustained  him ;  and  on  the  same  Almighty  Being 
I  place  my  reliance  for  support.  And  I  hope  that  you,  my 
friends,  will  all  pray  that  I  may  receive  that  Divine  assis- 
tance, without  which  I  cannot  succeed,  but  with  which  suc- 
cess is  certain."  —  Farewell  Speech  at  Springfield,  Feb.  11, 1861. 


SCHOOL  INTEBESTS  AND  DUTIES 


XIII 

"I  am  but  an  accidental  instrument,  temporary  and  to 
serve  for  a  limited  time ;  and  I  appeal  to  you  to  constantly 
bear  in  mind  that  with  you,  and  not  with  politicians,  nor 
with  Presidents,  nor  with  office  seekers,  but  with  you  is  the 
question,  i  Shall  the  Union  and  shall  the  liberties  of  this 
country  be  preserved  to  the  latest  generations  ? ' ' 

—  Bates  House  Speech  at  Indianapolis,  Feb.  11,  1861. 

XIV 

"  I  have  often  inquired  of  myself  what  great  principle  or 
idea  it  was  that  kept  this  Confederacy  so  long  together.  It 
was  not  the  mere  matter  of  the  separation  of  the  colonies 
from  the  motherland,  but  that  sentiment  in  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  which  gave  liberty  not  alone  to  the  people 
of  this  country,  but,  I  hope,  to  the  world  for  all  future  time. 
It  was  that  which  gave  promise  that  in  due  time  the  weight 
would  be  lifted  from  the  shoulders  of  all  men.  This  is  the 
sentiment  embodied  in  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Now,  my  friends,  can  the  country  be  saved  upon  that  basis  ? 
If  it  can,  I  will  consider  myself  the  happiest  man  in  the 
world  if  I  can  help  to  save  it.  If  it  cannot  be  saved  upon 
that  principle,  it  will  be  truly  awful.  But  if  this  country 
cannot  be  saved  without  giving  up  that  principle,  I  was 
about  to  say  that  I  would  rather  be  assassinated  on  this 
spot  than  surrender  it." 

—  Address  at  Independence  Hall,  Philadelphia,  Feb.  21,  1861. 

xv 

"Why  should  there  not  be  a  patient  confidence  in  the 
ultimate  justice  of  the  people  ?  Is  there  any  better  or  equal 
hope  in  the  world?  In  our  present  differences  is  either 
party  without  faith  of  being  in  the  right  ?  If  the  Almighty 
Ruler  of  Nations,  with  His  eternal  truth  and  justice,  be  on 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND   OBSERVANCES     223 

your  side  of  the  North,  or  on  yours  of  the  South,  that  truth 
and  that  justice  will  surely  prevail,  by  the  judgment  of  this 
great  tribunal  of  the  American  people." 

—  First  Inaugural  Address,  March  4, 1861. 

XVI 

"In  your  hands,  my  dissatisfied  fellow  countrymen,  and 
not  in  mine,  is  the  momentous  issue  of  civil  war.  The 
government  will  not  assail  you.  You  can  have  no  conflict 
without  being  yourselves  the  aggressors.  You  have  no  oath 
registered  in  Heaven  to  destroy  the  government,  while  I 
have  the  most  solemn  one  to  '  preserve,  protect,  and  defend ' 
it.  I  am  loath  to  close.  We  are  not  enemies,  but  friends. 
We  must  not  be  enemies.  Though  passion  may  have  strained, 
it  must  not  break  our  bonds  of  affection.  The  mystic  chords 
of  memory,  stretching  from  every  battle  field  and  patriot 
grave  to  every  living  heart  and  hearthstone  all  over  this 
broad  land,  will  yet  swell  the  chorus  of  the  Union,  when 
again  touched,  as  surely  they  will  be,  by  the  angels  of  our 
better  nature."  —  First  Inaugural  Address,  March  4,  1861. 

XVII 

"Now,  therefore,  I,  Abraham  Lincoln,  President  of  the 
United  States,  by  virtue  of  the  power  vested  in  me  as  Com- 
mander-in-Chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States 
in  time  of  actual  armed  rebellion  against  the  authority  and 
government  of  the  United  States,  and  as  a  fit  and  necessary 
war  measure  for  suppressing  said  rebellion,  do,  on  this  first 
day  of  January  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  sixty-three,  and  in  accordance  with  my  purpose 
to  do  so  proclaimed  for  the  full  period  of  one  hundred  days, 
from  the  first  day  above  mentioned,  order  and  designate  as 
the  States  and  parts  of  States  wherein  the  people  thereof 
are  respectively  this  day  in  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  the  following,  etc. 


224  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

"  And  by  virtue  of  the  power  and  for  the  purpose  afore- 
said, I  do  order  and  declare  that  all  persons  held  as  slaves 
within  said  designated  States  and  parts  of  States  are,  and 
henceforward  shall  be,  free ;  and  that  the  Executive  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  including  the  military  and  naval 
authorities  thereof,  will  recognize  and  maintain  the  freedom 
of  said  persons.  .  .  , 

"And  upon  this  act,  sincerely  believed  to  be  an  act  of 
justice,  warranted  by  the  Constitution  upon  military  neces- 
sity, I  invoke  the  considerate  judgment  of  mankind  and  the 
favor  of  Almighty  God." 

—  Proclamation  of  Emancipation,  Jan.  1,  1863. 

XVIII 

"  The  world  will  little  note  nor  long  remember  what  we 
say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here.  It  is 
for  us,  the  living,  rather,  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfin- 
ished work  they  have  thus  far  nobly  carried  on.  It  is  rather 
for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before 
us,  that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion 
to  the  cause  for  which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of 
devotion ;  that  we  here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall 
not  have  died  in  vain;  that  the  Nation  shall,  under  God,  have 
a  new  birth  of  freedom ;  and  that  government  of  the  people, 
by  the  people,  and  for  the  people,  shall  not  perish  from 
the  earth."—  Gettysburg  Cemetery  Dedication^  Nov.  19, 1864. 

XIX 

"  With  malice  toward  none,  with  charity  for  all,  with  firm- 
ness to  do  the  right  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the  right,  let  us 
strive  to  finish  the  great  work  we  are  in,  to  bind  up  the 
Nation's  wounds,  to  care  for  him  who  shall  have  borne  the 
battle  and  for  his  widow  and  his  orphans ;  to  do  all  which 
may  achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and  a  lasting  peace  among 
ourselves  and  with  all  nations." 

—  Second  Inaugural  Address,  March  4,  1865. 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND   OBSERVANCES     225 
XX 

TOM  TAYLOR'S  TRIBUTE  TO  LINCOLN1 

You  lay  a  wreath  on  murdered  Lincoln's  bier, 
You,  who  with  mocking  pencil  wont  to  trace, 

Broad  for  the  self-complacent  British  sneer, 

His  length  of  shambling  limb,  his  furrowed  face, 

His  gaunt,  gnarled  hands,  his  unkempt,  bristling  hair, 
His  garb  uncouth,  his  bearing  ill  at  ease, 

His  lack  of  all  we  prize  as  debonair, 

Of  power  or  will  to  shine,  of  art  to  please ; 

You,  whose  smart  pen.  backed  up  the  pencil's  laugh, 
Judging  each,  step  as  though  the  way  were  plain, 

Eeckless,  so  it  could  point  its  paragraph 
Of  chief's  perplexity,  or  people's  pain. 

Beside  this  corpse,  that  bears  for  winding  sheet 
The  stars  and  stripes  he  lived  to  rear  anew, 

Between  the  mourners  at  his  head  and  feet, 
Say,  scurrile  jester,  is  there  room  for  you? 

Yes :  he  had  lived  to  shame  me  from  my  sneer, 
To  lame  my  pencil,  and  confute  my  pen.; 

To  make  me  own  this  hind  of  princes  peer, 
This  rail  splitter  a  true-born  king  of  men. 


1  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  this  noble  poetical  tribute  to  Lincoln 
was  composed  in  a  foreign  land,  and  was  published  in  a  comic  paper. 
Tom  Taylor,  of  the  London  Punch,  had  made  the  great  President  a 
target  for  his  shafts  of  ridicule,  and  had  poured  forth  an  unceasing  stream 
of  sarcastic  detraction  in  prose,  in  verse,  and  in  pictorial  caricature. 
When  the  end  came,  this  famous  jester  laid  aside  his  fun  and,  rising 
to  the  dignity  of  the  occasion,  laid  this  immortal  wreath  on  murdered 
Lincoln's  bier. 

SCH.  INT.  &  BUT. — 15 


226  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

My  shallow  judgment  I  had  learned  to  rue, 
Noting  how  to  occasion's  height  he  rose ; 

How  his  quaint  wit  made  home  truth  seem  more  true ; 
How,  iron-like,  his  temper  grew  by  blows. 

How  humble,  yet  how  hopeful,  he  could  be ; 

How,  in  good  fortune  and  in  ill,  the  same ; 
Nor  bitter  in  success,  nor  boastful  he, 

Thirsty  for  gold,  nor  feverish  for  fame. 

He  went  about  his  work  —  such  work  as  few 
Ever  had  laid  on  head  and  heart  and  hand  — 

As  one  who  knows,  where  there's  a  task  to  do, 

Man's  honest  will  must  Heaven's  good  grace  command ; 

Who  trusts  the  strength  will  with  the  burden  grow, 
That  God  makes  instruments  to  work  his  will, 

If  but  that  will  we  can  arrive  to  know, 

Nor  tamper  with  the  weights  of  good  and  ill. 

So  he  went  forth  to  battle,  on  the  side 
That  he  felt  clear  was  Liberty's  and  Eight's, 

As  in  his  peasant  boyhood  he  had  plied 

His  warfare  with  rude  Nature's  thwarting  mights ; 

The  uncleared  forest,  the  unbroken  soil, 

The  iron  bark,  that  turns  the  lumberer's  axe, 

The  rapid,  that  o'erbears  the  boatman's  toil, 

The  prairie,  hiding  the  mazed  wanderer's  tracks, 

The  ambushed  Indian,  and  the  prowling  bear,  — 
Such  were  the  deeds  that  helped  his  youth  to  train: 

Bough  culture,  but  such  trees  large  fruit  may  bear, 
If  but  their  stocks  be  of  right  girth  and  grain. 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND   OBSERVANCES      227 

So  he  grew  up,  a  destined  work  to  do, 
And  lived  to  do  it ;  four  long-suffering  years, 

111  fate,  ill  feeling,  ill  report,  lived  through, 
And  then  he  heard  the  hisses  change  to  cheers, 

The  taunts  to  tribute,  the  abuse  to  praise, 

And  took  both  with  the  same  unwavering  mood ; 

Till,  as  he  came  on  light,  from  darkling  days, 

And  seemed  to  touch  the  goal  from  where  he  stood, 

A  felon  hand,  between  the  goal  and  him, 

Beached  from  behind  his  back,  a  trigger  prest, 

And  those  perplexed  and  patient  eyes  were  dim, 
Those  gaunt,  long-laboring  limbs  were  laid  to  rest ! 

The  words  of  mercy  were  upon  his  lips, 
Forgiveness  in  his  heart  and  on  his  pen, 

When  this  vile  murderer  brought  swift  eclipse 
To  thoughts  of  peace  on  earth,  good  will  to  men. 

The  Old  World  and  the  New,  from  sea  to  sea, 
Utter  one  voice  of  sympathy  and  shame : 

Sore  heart,  so  stopped  when  it  at  last  beat  high ; 
Sad  life,  cut  short  just  as  its  triumph  came ! 

A  deed  accurst !     Strokes  have  been  struck  before 
By  the  assassin's  hand,  whereof  men  doubt 

If  more  of  horror  or  disgrace  they  bore ; 

But  thy  foul  crime,  like  Cain's,  stands  darkly  out. 

Vile  hand,  that  brandest  murder  on  a  strife, 
What'er  its  grounds,  stoutly  and  nobly  striven ; 

And  with  the  martyr's  crown  crownest  a  life 
With  much  to  praise,  little  to  be  forgiven. 


228  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Other  Notable  Birthdays.  —  Less  formal  and  extended 
notice  may  be  taken  of  the  birthdays  of  other  eminent  states- 
men. Since  there  is  a  risk  of  loss  to  the  regular  work  of 
the  school  from  too  frequent  and  formal  exercises  of  a  com- 
memorative character,  it  is  best  to  attempt  in  any  one  year 
the  observance  of  but  a  few  such  days. 

Where  a  general  participation  by  the  school  is  not  found 
desirable,  classes  in  history  may  profitably  mark  by  special 
studies  and  recitations  the  birthday  of  Henry  Clay,  the  great 
Pacificator ;  of  Jackson,  who  boldly  met  the  issue  of  Nullifi- 
cation ;  of  Monroe,  who  promulgated  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine  ".; 
of  John  Quincy  Adams,  who  maintained  in  Congress  the 
Right  of  Petition;  of  Garfield,  the  statesman  and  scholar, 
and  of  others. 

In  the  following  brief  list,  which  will  be  found  convenient 
for  reference,  are  given  the  dates  of  birth  of  some  of  the 
leading  statesmen  of  America : 

January  6,  1811 „     ,     .  Charles  Sumner. 

January  11,  1757    .         , .  Alexander  Hamilton. 

January  17,  1706 Benjamin  Franklin. 

January  18,  1782 Daniel  Webster. 

February  12,  1809 Abraham  Lincoln. 

February  22,  1732 George  Washington. 

March  15,  1767 Andrew  Jackson. 

March  16,  1751  ...         James  Madison. 

April  2,  1743 , Thomas  Jefferson. 

April  12,  1777 Henry  Clay. 

April  27,  1822 Ulysses  S.  Grant. 

April  28,  1758    .    .     , James  Monroe. 

July  11,  1767 , John  Quincy  Adams. 

November  19,  1831 James  A.  Garfield. 

School  Flags  and  Flag  Days.  —  The  use  of  school  flags  is 
growing  in  popularity.  It  is  the  boast  of  many  counties  in 
various  States  that  all  or  nearly  all  the  schools  which  they 
contain  are  supplied  with  this  beautiful  emblem  of  our 
country. 

The  judicious  use  of  the  flag  can  be  made  very  interesting 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND   OBSERVANCES     229 

to  the  pupils,  impressing  upon  their  minds  the  significance- 
of  great  events  in  the  history  of  our  nation  and  race.  It 
has  been  the  thought  of  some  teachers  to  have  flags  displayed 
over  their  schoolhouses  while  the  schools  are  in  session, 
irrespective  of  any  special  significance  of  the  day  as  an 
anniversary.  Many  prefer  to  display  the  flag  only  on  days 
important  because  of  their  association  with  historical  events. 
This  will  impress  those  events  more  strongly  upon  the  mind 
of  the  pupil. 

Flags  are  of  all  sizes  and  of  various  prices,  and  there  is 
no  community  that  cannot  afford  a  flag  of  some  sort  for  the 
use  of  its  school.  As  an  emblem  of  the  nation's  authority 
and  power,  the  flag  should  be  treated  with  respect  under  all 
circumstances.  It  may  be  committed  to  the  custody  of  com- 
petent and  faithful  pupils.  The  honor  of  being  a  flagman 
in  a  school  or  a  color-bearer  in  a  procession  is  one  which 
should  be  sought  by  the  pupils  and  earned  by  meritorious 
conduct.  The  flag  should  be  raised  and  lowered  at  regular 
and  stated  hours;  it  should  not  be  exposed  to  inclement 
weather,  nor  should  it  be  left  flying  at  night. 

Suggestions  for  Flag  Presentation  Day,  —  Everything  re- 
lating to  the  history  of  the  flag  is  of  interest  to  Americans ; 
and  a  very  interesting  programme  of  exercises  can  be  ar- 
ranged for  the  occasion  of  the  presentation  of  the  flag  to  the 
school,  and  for  its  first  unfurling  to  the  view  of  the  school 
and  the  community  From  the  time  when  the  flag  is  ac- 
cepted, the  observance  of  flag  days  may  enter  into  the  exer- 
cises of  the  school  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  as  circumstances 
may  suggest  or  permit.  If  there  be  little  time  for  any 
extended  notice  of  the  anniversary  celebrated  by  the  hoisting 
of  the  flag,  there  can  be,  at  least,  a  brief  reference  to  it  by 
the  teacher  in  his  morning  exercises,  and  the  pupils  can  be 
encouraged  to  read  about  the  event  commemorated  and  its 
significance  in  history.  Often,  however,  there  will  be  found 
time  for  the  reading  of  some  suitable  poem  and  the  singing 
of  some  patriotic  song  in  honor  of  the  day. 


230  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

In  a  programme  for  the  first  flag  celebration  the  banner 
itself  will  naturally  be  the  principal  theme.  The  history  of 
the  flag  may  be  divided  into  a  number  of  parts,  to  serve  as 
topics  for  brief  essays.  Poems  and  songs  relating  to  the 
flag  may  be  rendered,  each  being  introduced  by  a  brief  state- 
ment in  reference  to  the  author,  and  perhaps  also  to  the 
circumstances  under  which  the  composition  was  written. 
The  address  on  the  presentation  of  the  flag  to  the  school 
should  be  well  prepared,  and  spoken  rather  than  read.  Some- 
times the  presentation  is  made  by  a  patriotic  society,  or  by 
individuals  not  connected  with  the  school.  In  any  case,  the 
event  is  likely  to  be  long  remembered,  and  the  opportunity 
should  be  improved  by  a  suitable  expression  of  appreciation 
of  the  present. 

What  constitutes  an  American  Flag.  —  It  may  seem  a  singu- 
lar fact  that  there  is  no  authoritative  specification  of  the 
proportions  of  the  American  flag.  There  must  be  thirteen 
alternating  stripes  of  red  and  white,  with  a  "quartering" 
of  blue  containing  a  white  star  for  each  State  of  the  Union. 
The  "  quartering "  implies  simply  that  the  blue  field  shall 
occupy  a  space  in  the  upper  inner  corner.  The  flag  should  be 
at  least  one  half  longer  than  its  breadth  measures.  Generally 
its  length  is  somewhat  more  than  this. 

The  Significance  of  the  Colors.  —  Red,  which  is  designated 
as  gules  by  heralds,  is  employed  in  their  art  to  typify  courage 
and  strength.  White,  or  argent,  as  it  is  sometimes  desig- 
nated, symbolizes  purity  and  innocence.  It  represents  silver, 
and  in  pictures  of  flags  the  silver  itself  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  stars  arid  for  six  of  the  stripes.  Blue  is  the  symbol 
of  truth,  constancy,  and  sincerity. 

Material  of  the  Flag.  —  Flags  are  made  of  various  materials. 
Sometimes  these  are  elaborated  with  great  elegance,  and 
costly  silks  are  used,  with  braid  and  fringe  of  gold  and  silver. 
The  favorite  material  for  large  flags  is  bunting,  a  light, 
loosely-woven  woolen  fabric  which  will  not  crease  by  folding, 
and  which  floats  gracefully  on  the  air. 


SCHOOL    CELEBRATIONS  AND   OBSERVANCES      231 

The  American  Shield.  —  Akin  to  the  flag  is  the  shield  of 
the  national  colors,  which  may  be  used  with  fine  effect  in 
the  decoration  of  the  schoolroom,  either  as  a  joining  of 
evergreen  festoons  upon  the  walls,  or  independently  as  a 
wall  ornament  to  be  placed  between  or  above  the  doors 
and  windows.  The  shield  may  be  of  various  shape.  The 
upper  part  is  blue,  and  contains  the  stars,  while  the  lower 
portion  is  occupied  with,  alternating  perpendicular  stripes  of 
red  and  white. 

All  are  familiar  with  the  national  shield.  Generally  this 
is  represented  as  borne,  or  "  supported,"  by  an  eagle,  which 
flies  with  outstretched  wings,  bearing  in  one  of  its  talons  a 
bundle  of  arrows  and  in  the  other  the  olive  of  peace,  while 
in  its  bill  is  held  a  scroll  with  the  motto  E  Pluribus  Unum 
(Out  of  the  many,  the  one).  The  invention  of  this  striking 
device  was  a  remarkable  departure  from  precedent  in  her- 
aldry, since  in  all  previous  devices  of  like  character  the 
"supporters"  of  the  shields — whether  figures  of  men  or  of 
beasts  —  were  represented  as  resting  upon  the  earth. 

Shields  can  be  easily  constructed  of  pasteboard,  and  cov- 
ered with  paper  stripes,  field,  and  stars.  Silver  paper  may 
be  used  in  lieu  of  white,  if  preferred. 

Care  of  the  Flag. — A  well-made  flag  of  good  materials 
will  last  a  long  time,  if  properly  cared  for.  A  canvas  case, 
in  which  to  inclose  it  when  it  is  not  in  use,  is  generally 
desirable.  The  flag  should  not  be  laid  away  when  damp. 
If  lent  for  any  purpose,  its  prompt  return  should  be  insured. 
In  the  proper  care  of  this  beautiful  symbol,  the  pupil  will 
learn  a  lesson  of  responsibility  and  trust. 

The  Origin  of  the  Flag. — Early  in  the  Kevolutionary 
War,  the  Americans  used  a  yellow  flag,  on  which  was 
painted  a  rattlesnake,  coiled  for  springing,  together  with 
the  warning  words,  "Don't  tread  on  me."  The  flag  dis- 
played by  the  Americans  at  Bunker  Hill  was  blue,  quartered 
with  a  white  field,  which  contained  a  red  cross  and  the 
picture  of  a  pine  tree. 


232  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

On  the  14th  of  June,  1777,  the  American  Congress  pro- 
vided that  the  flag  of  the  United  States  should  consist  of 
thirteen  stripes,  alternately  red  and  white,  with  thirteen 
white  stars  in  a  blue  field,  representing  a  new  constel- 
lation. 

In  1794  the  number  of  stripes  was  increased  to  fifteen ; 
and  two  more  stars  were  added,  in  order  that  these  might 
correspond  in  number  to  the  States  of  the  Union.  It  became 
apparent,  however,  that  many  new  States  would  be  added  to 
the  Nation,  and  that  the  plan  of  providing  an  additional 
stripe  for  each  would  result  in  making  the  flag  too  wide  or 
the  stripes  too  narrow. 

In  1818  the  Government  adopted  the  present  plan,  which 
is  to  have  the  original  thirteen  stripes,  with  a  star  for  every 
State  in  the  Union.  This  flag  was  first  unfurled  on  the 
Fourth  of  July,  in  the  same  year.  The  number  of  stars  is 
now  forty-four.  In  the  war  for  the  Union,  the  Federal 
Government  did  not  recognize  the  secession  of  any  State  as 
legal,  and  no  star  was  erased  from  its  banner. 

Music  and  Literature  Relating  to  the  Flag  — It  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  the  well-known  song,  The  Star  Spangled 
Banner,  was  composed,  at  least  in  part,  in  the  midst  of  a 
furious  battle,  and  on  a  ship  of  the  enemy.  When  the 
British  bombarded  Fort  McHenry,  on  the  Chesapeake,  near 
Baltimore,  in  1814,  Francis  S.  Key,  a  young  American,  was 
held  a  prisoner  on  board  the  man-of-war  that  was  seeking  to 
destroy  the  defenses  of  the  city.  He  was  exposed  to  death 
from  the  guns  of  his  own  friends,  yet  he  was  most  solicitous 
to  see  the  Americans  succeed.  Amid  the  furious  cannonad- 
ing he  watched  anxiously  through  the  night,  to  note  at  every 
flash  of  light  whether  the  flag  was  still  flying  over  the  fort, 
or  whether  it  was  lowered  as  a  signal  of  surrender. 

"And  the  rocket's  red  glare, 
The  bombs  bursting  in  air, 
Gave  proof,  through  the  night, 
That  our  flag  was  still  there." 


SCHOOL   CELEBEATIONS  AND   OBSEEVANCES     233 

All  can  appreciate  the  thrilling  interest  with  which, 
throughout  the  hours  of  darkness,  he  asked  himself  the 
question : 

"  Oh,  say,  does  the  star  spangled  banner  yet  wave  ?" 

There  are  many  beautiful  and  popular  songs  which  relate 
to  our  national  emblem.  Among  these  are  Tfie  Red,  White, 
and  Blue;  Our  Bright  Starry  Banner;  How  it  Marches,  the 
Flag  of  the  Union;  Our  Banner  Bright;  Our  Flag  is  Here ; 
Flag  of  the  Heroes;  Rally  Round  the  Flag;  Hoist  up  the 
Flag;  Fling  Out  the  Banner,  ete. 

One  of  the  most  stirring  of  all  the  poems  relating  to  our 
national  ensign  is  The  American  Flag,  by  Joseph  Kodman 
Drake.  Its  author,  a  citizen  of  New  York,  died  in  1820,  at 
the  early  age  of  twenty-five.  This  was  the  young  patriot's 
last  poem,  and  was  written  when  he  was  stricken  with  mortal 
illness.  It  begins  thus : 

"  When  Freedom  from  her  mountain  height 
Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air, 
She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night, 
And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there. 
She  mingled  with  its  gorgeous  dyes 
The  milky  baldric  of  the  skies, 
And  striped  its  pure,  celestial  white 
With  streakings  of  the  morning  light ; 
Then,  from  his  mansion  in  the  sun 
She  called  her  eagle  bearer  down, 
And  gave  into  his  mighty  hand 
The  symbol  of  her  chosen  land." 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  of  all  the  notable  utterances  of 
our  greatest  orator,  Daniel  Webster,  is  the  following,  which 
is  taken  from  a  speech  delivered  by  him  in  the  Senate, 
January  26,  3 830,  and  which  is  familiar  to  all  Americans : 

"  When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold  for  the  last  time 
the  sun  in  heaven,  may  they  not  see  him  shining  on  the 
broken  and  dishonored  fragments  of  a  once  glorious  Union ; 


234  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

on  States  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent ;  on  a  land  rent 
with  civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  may  be,  in  fraternal  blood. 
Let  their  last,  feeble,  and  lingering  glance  rather  behold  the 
gorgeous  ensign  of  the  Kepublic,  now  known  and  honored 
throughout  the  earth,  still  full-high  advanced ;  its  arms  and 
trophies  streaming  in  all  their  original  luster,  not  a  stripe 
erased  or  polluted,  not  a  single  star  obscured ;  bearing  for 
its  motto  no  such  miserable  interrogatory  as  'What  is  all 
this  worth  ? '  nor  those  other  words  of  delusion  and  folly, 
' Liberty  first,  and  Union  afterwards';  but  everywhere, 
spread  all  over  in  characters  of  living  light  and  blazing  on 
all  its  ample  folds,  as  they  float  over  the  sea  and  over  the 
land,  and  in  every  wind  under  the  whole  heavens,  that  other 
sentiment  dear  to  every  true  American  heart,  — '  Liberty 
and  Union,  —  now  and  forever,  —  one  and  inseparable.' " 

Appropriate  Flag  Days. — The  number  of  historic  days  to 
be  observed  by  the  unfurling  of  the  flag  should  depend 
somewhat  upon  the  advancement  of  the  pupils,  and  upon 
other  considerations  relating  to  the  school.  The  following 
suggestive  list  of  suitable  flag  days  can  be  extended  indefi- 
nitely by  the  teacher : 

January  1,  1863.    The  proclamation  of  emancipation  issued  by 

President  Lincoln. 

January  8,  1815.     The  battle  of  New  Orleans. 
February  2,  1848.    The  treaty  of  peace  with  Mexico,  by  which  the 
territory  of  the  United  States  was  greatly 
enlarged. 

February  23,  1847.     The  victory  of  General  Taylor  at  Buena  Vista. 
February  24,  1779.     The  surrender  of  Fort  Sackville,  at  Vincennes, 
to  Col.  George  Rogers  Clarke,  which  secured 
to  the  United  States  the  region  of  the  North- 
west Territory. 
March  4.     Inauguration  Day. 
April  19,  1775.    The  battle  of  Lexington. 
April  30,  1789.     George  Washington  inaugurated  first  President 

of  the  United  States. 
May  13,  1607.     The  founding  of  Jamestown. 


SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS  AND   OBSERVANCES     235 

May  20,  1775.    The  Mecklenburg  (N.C.)  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. 
May  30.     Memorial  Day.      The  decoration  of  soldiers' 


June  15,  1215.  Magna  Charta  (Kar'ta),  the  great  charter  of 
liberty  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  signed  by 
King  John  of  England. 

July  4,  1770.    The   signing  of  the  Declaration   of    Indepen- 
dence. 

September  3,  1783.  The  Revolutionary  War  ended  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  which  recognized  American  indepen- 
dence. 

September  10,  1813.     Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie. 
September  16,  1847.     The  City  of  Mexico  occupied  by  the  American 

army  under  General  Scott. 

October  12,  1492.  Columbus  landed  at  San  Salvador. 
November  25,  1783.  The  British  evacuated  New  York. 
December  10,  1832.  Jackson's  proclamation  against  nullification. 

Other  School  Celebrations.  —  Of  the  various  forms  of  school 
celebrations,  Arbor  Day  has  been  treated  elsewhere  in  this 
volume,  and  suggestions  have  been  made  in  reference  to 
Commencement  Day.  Library  Day  has  been  instituted  in 
many  schools,  and  contributions  have  been  made  by  pupils, 
and  by  patrons  present,  for  the  purchase  of  library  books. 
Suitable  exercises  of  a  literary  character  form  the  basis  of 
the  programmes  on  such  occasions.  It  may  be  well  to  have 
these  relate  in  some  way  to  the  specific  books  to  be  pur- 
chased, and  to  their  authors,  if  the  choice  of  books  has  been 
made. 

General  Holidays.  — In  addition  to  the  distinctively  school 
entertainments  which  have  been  discussed  in  this  chapter, 
should  be  considered  the  general  holidays  which  the  pupils 
share  with  the  community,  either  as  individuals,  or  col- 
lectively as  a  school.  Sometimes  on  public  occasions  a  class, 
a  grade,  or  the  entire  school  may  be  assigned  some  specific 
and  interesting  part  in  the  exercises.  In  such  cases,  teachers 
and  pupils  alike  feel  responsible  for  a  creditable  perform- 
ance of  the  part  assigned.  Sometimes  the  pupils  of  a  school 


236  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

visit  local  fairs  or  exhibitions  in  a  body,  and  under  the 
supervision  of  the  teachers  in  charge.  Sometimes  they  are 
called  to  march  in  procession  on  occasions  of  public  sorrow 
or  of  public  rejoicing.  At  such  times  the  behavior  of  the 
pupils  is  felt  to  be  a  credit  to  the  school  if  order  and  pro- 
priety be  maintained,  and  a  cause  of  just  criticism  to  the 
school  if  these  be  violated.  The  influence  of  the  school 
should  be  felt  without  the  schoolroom,  and  made  apparent 
in  the  public  test  to  which  it  is  subjected  upon  all  such 
occasions. 


VII 


THE  TEACHERS'   INSTITUTE 


CHAPTER   XII 
THE   TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE1 

The  Function  of  the  Institute.  —  We  must  assume  that  our 
public  school  service  is  to  be  administered,  in  great  part,  by 
young  men  and  women  who  have  made  no  previous  study  of 
the  teaching  art ;  and  one  of  the  great  educational  problems 
of  the  day  is  how  to  promote  the  professional  education  of 
teachers  who  have  entered  the  public  school  service  with 
but  little  or  no  preparatory  training. 

I  think  we  may  say  at  the  outset  that  the  function  of  the 
normal  school  is  to  take  in  hand  the  training  of  professional 
teachers ;  whereas,  the  distinctive  function  of  the  Institute 
is  to  provide  some  training  for  non-professional  teachers. 
Those  who  frequent  our  normal  schools,  as  a  rule,  do  so 
with  the  deliberate  intent  of  making  teaching  a  vocation  for 
a  shorter  or  a  longer  period;  and,  at  the  time  when  they 
actually  enter  upon  their  duties,  they  have  already  learned 
more  or  less  of  their  art.  The  Institute,  on  the  other  hand, 
assumes  that  very  many  who  are  actually  teaching,  or  who 
propose  to  teach,  have  never  received  a  normal  school  train- 
ing ;  and  so  its  special  function  is  to  supplement  the  normal 
school  —  to  do  a  little  of  the  work  that  it  should  have  done, 
but  which  it  did  not  have  the  opportunity  of  doing. 

Military  life  furnishes  an  illustration  of  the  distinctive 
functions  of  the  normal  school  and  the  Institute.  The  pro- 
fessional soldier  is  educated  at  West  Point ;  but  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  country  sometimes  require  the  services  of  large 

1  From  Payne's  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education. 
239 


240  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

numbers  of  non-professional  soldiers.  These  volunteers  are 
usually  trained  for  a  few  days  before  they  see  actual  service. 
In  camps  of  instruction  they  are  taught  the  elements  of 
military  tactics,  while  their  training  is  extended  and  per- 
fected by  active  service  in  the  field. 

And  so  we  may  define  an  Institute  as  a  normal  school  with 
a  very  short  course  of  study ;  and  we  may  state  its  general 
purpose  to  be,  first,  to  instruct  the  prospective,  but  non- 
professional,  teacher  in  the  elements  of  his  art,  and  thus  to 
give  some  extension  to  his  knowledge  and  skill.  In  this 
statement  I  have  sought  to  indicate  the  primary  and  main 
purpose  of  the  Institute.  I  do  not  forget  that  a  secondary 
purpose  should  be  to  stimulate  and  assist  teachers  who  are 
further  advanced  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  their  art. 

Now,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  let  us  inquire  what  knowl- 
edge is  needed  in  order  to  enter  upon  the  work  of  teaching 
with  fair  hopes  of  success ;  what  are  the  elements  of  pro- 
fessional knowledge ;  and  what  part  of  this  work  the  lim- 
itations of  the  Institute  will  permit  it  to  undertake. 

The  First  Requisite  of  the  Teacher. — 1.  It  is  plain  that 
the  very  first  requisite  is  a  competent  knowledge  of  sub- 
jects. The  teacher  must  know  how  to  read,  spell,  and 
write,  and  must  have  some  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, and  geography,  as  the  necessary  condition  of  assisting 
others  in  the  attainment  of  this  knowledge.  It  is  necessary 
to  insist  on  this  requirement,  for  two  reasons :  (1)  The  doc- 
trine is  beginning  to  prevail  that  teacher  and  pupil  should 
move  on  the  same  plane,  both  should  be  tyros  and  learners, 
and  that  the  chief  point  of  superiority  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  is  his  greater  mental  alertness  and  persistence.  Of 
course,  absolutely  speaking,  the  teacher  should  be  a  learner ; 
but,  relatively,  he  should  be  learned.  In  geography,  for 
example,  his  scholarship  should  not  be  simply  a  thing  in 
progress,  but  a  fact  accomplished.  In  the  work  of  the 
school,  teacher  and  pupil  are  not  coordinate  elements. 
And  (2)  in  our  day  there  is  such  insistence  on  method, 


THE  TEACHERS'   INSTITUTE  241 

as  distinguished  from  scholarship,  that  we  are  in  danger 
of  underestimating  the  importance  of  high  scholastic  at- 
tainments. In  the  earlier  day  scholarship  was  everything, 
method  almost  nothing;  and  the  natural  recoil  from  this 
error  has  induced  an  exaggerated  belief  in  method  as  some 
substitute  for  scholarship.  I  think  it  cannot  be  too  much 
insisted  on  that  a  school  of  a  given  grade  should  have  for 
its  teacher  one  who  has  been  educated  in  a  school  of  a 
higher  grade. 

The  Second  Requisite. — After  scholarship,  the  thing  of 
next  importance  is  method.  Two  teachers  of  equal  attain- 
ments may  stand  to  each  other  in  real  force  as  ten  to  one, 
the  difference  being  due  to  high  and  low  qualities  of  method. 
I  use  this  term  to  cover  all  the  processes  of  the  schoolroom, 
—  organization,  government,  and  instruction.  Many  have 
not  observed  the  fact  that  improvement  in  methods  of  teach- 
ing has  been  as  real,  and,  perhaps,  as  rapid,  as  improvement 
in  the  processes  of  agriculture  or  of  manufacture.  There  is 
scarcely  a  greater  difference  between  gathering  grain  with  a 
cradle  and  with  a  reaper  than  between  the  alphabetic  and 
the  word  method.  There  is  not  a  single  method  in  school- 
room practice  that  has  not  suffered  marked  revision  and 
improvement  within  the  last  twenty-five  years.  Now,  what 
the  Institute  is  to  insist  on  is,  that  all  teachers  under  train- 
ing shall  be  taught  the  very  best  current  method  of  doing 
the  various  work  of  the  school. 

The  Teacher's  "  Conversion." — So  far  we  have  been  deal- 
ing with  the  matter  and  the  method  of  the  teacher's  outfit ; 
the  body,  so  to  speak,  of  his  professional  self.  But  this 
body  must  be  animated  and  inspired  by  a  spirit.  I  am  now 
speaking  of  something  that  cannot  be  articulately  described, 
but  of  something  of  which  we  are  all  conscious  when  we 
think  of  a  real  teacher  and  his  work.  Grant  to  the  painter 
his  palette,  his  brushes,  his  paints,  and  the  formal  rules  of 
his  art ;  but,  with  only  these  things,  he  is  merely  a  mechanic. 
What  will  transform  this  mechanic  into  an  artist?  Fair 

SCH.  INT.  &  DUT. — 16 


242  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

ideals,  a  divine  sense  of  beauty,  and  a  conception  of  the 
possibilities  of  art.  It  is  only  under  the  domination  of  this 
spirit  that  the  artist  becomes  a  creator.  Now,  what  I  wish 
to  say  is  that,  by  some  means,  a  spirit  akin  to  this  must  be 
infused  into  a  body  of  scholars,  in  order  that  they  may  be- 
come teachers.  There  must  be  some  ideal  to  serve  as  the 
goal  of  one's  effort,  some  sense  of  the  sacredness  and 
grandeur  of  the  teaching  office,  and  a  conception  of  what 
is  possible  through  the  resources  of  the  teacher's  art.  This 
change  of  spirit  and  of  purpose  is  so  marked  that,  some- 
times, in  speaking  of  it,  I  have  ventured  to  call  it  con- 
version. 

On  more  than  one  occasion  I  have  seen  a  change  of  coun- 
tenance pass  over  an  assembly  of  teachers  as  the  speaker 
succeeded  in  causing  his  hearers  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  the 
real  nature  and  the  possibilities  of  the  educating  art.  He 
who  has  once  ascended  a  mountain,  and  thence  has  surveyed 
the  landscape  below,  is  forever  after  a  changed  man.  In 
some  real  way,  but,  of  course,  in  a  way  that  cannot  be 
described,  so  far  as  spirit  is  concerned,  there  has  been  a 
transformation,  almost  a  transfiguration.  So  teachers  may 
be  made  to  survey  their  work  from  the  summit  of  a  lofty 
conception ;  and  then,  forever  after,  this  work  will  be  done 
in  a  new  spirit,  under  a  kind  of  inspiration. 

Matter,  method,  and  spirit  —  these  are  the  three  things 
without,  which  no  work  in  teaching,  even  of  tolerable  excel- 
lence, can  be  done.  They  must  accompany  all  true  teaching ; 
and  while  they  form  the  minimum  of  one's  professional 
preparation,  they  are  the  permanent  endowments  of  the  most 
accomplished  teacher.  Other  elements  may  be  added,  but 
these  are  constants. 

Instrumental  and  Professional  Knowledge  — General  knowl- 
edge must  be  regarded  by  the  teacher  as  instrumental  or 
technical.  It  is  necessary  material  that  he  must  employ 
in  the  practice  of  his  art.  But  with  respect  to  general 
scholarship,  the  teacher  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the 


THE  TEACHERS'   INSTITUTE  243 

well-educated  man  or  woman  in  general ;  so  that  while  a 
knowledge  of  subjects  is  to  the  teacher  instrumental  knowl- 
edge, it  is  not,  with  strict  propriety,  professional  knowledge. 
Perhaps  we  must  call  it  quasi  professional ;  though,  consider- 
ing the  practical  necessities  of  the  case,  instruction  in  subjects 
must  be  regarded  as  a  necessary  function  of  the  normal 
school.  What  is  that  knowledge,  then,  which  differentiates 
the  teacher  from  the  scholar  —  which  is,  with  strict  pro- 
priety, professional  knowledge?  Method,  as  described  in 
the  last  section,  is  certainly  entitled  to  this  designation,  but 
on  the  ground  that  it  is  peculiar  knowledge  that  no  one  but 
a  teacher  must  necessarily  have.  On  still  higher  ground, 
select  portions  of  psychology  are  entitled  to  this  designation, 
for  it  is  chiefly  this  knowledge  that  can  serve  as  the  rational 
basis  of  method.  As  Mr.  Bain  says,  "  The  largest  chapter  in 
the  science  of  education  is  psychological" 

Psychology,  in  fact,  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  teaching 
that  anatomy  does  to  medicine.  The  teacher's  art  is  addressed 
to  mind ;  and  if  this  art  is  to  be  rational,  if  it  is  to  be  adminis- 
tered in  the  scientific  or  the  professional  spirit — for  these  are 
usually  identical  —  the  teacher  should  know  much  of  the 
philosophy  of  mind.  We  must  hold,  I  think,  that  there 
is  as  good  a  reason  why  a  professional  teacher  should  have 
an  articulate  knowledge  of  psychology  as  there  is  why  a 
physician  should  have  such  a  knowledge  of  physiology. 
That  Professor  H ,  for  example,  should  know  the  inter- 
dependence of  sensation,  perception,  imagination,  memory, 

and  judgment,  is  just  as  essential  as  that  Doctor  Y 

should  know  the  interdependence  of  lungs,  stomach,  liver, 
and  brain.  There  is  much  of  psychology  that  is  merely 
curious  or  of  general  interest,  having  but  very  remote  and 
indirect  bearings  upon  the  practice  of  the  teacher's  art ;  but 
there  is  other  matter,  of  much  smaller  volume,  that  is  vitally 
and  constantly  related  to  every  process  of  instruction.  Some 
of  this  knowledge  should  certainly  be  communicated  to 
teachers  through  the  agency  of  the  Institute.  I  hear  it  said 


244  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

on  all  hands  that  the  ordinary  teacher  is  not  capable  of  these 
high  attainments ;  but  whoever  will  rightly  apportion  this 
knowledge,  and  deftly  present  it,  will  discover  a  growing 
number  of  teachers  addicted  to  serious  thinking.  All  admit 
that  teachers  ought  to  possess  knowledge  of  this  sort,  but 
many  are  so  sceptical  of  success  in  trying  to  communicate  it 
that  they  abandon  the  project  as  hopeless.  But,  as  the  sage 
of  the  Tribune  was  wont  to  say,  "  the  only  way  to  resume  is 
to  resume."  To  create  an  appetite  for  this  kind  of  knowledge 
we  must  in  due  season  and  in  right  measure  allow  toothsome 
morsels  to  fall  in  the  way  of  those  who  will  have  an  awak- 
ened intellectual  appetite. 

A  Knowledge  of  Educational  Values.  —  Another  kind  of 
knowledge,  even  more  distinctly  professional,  because  falling 
much  further  out  of  the  range  and  the  needs  of  the  ordinary 
student,  is  what  Mr.  TBain  calls  "  education  values."  What 
is  the  practical  value,  say,  of  arithmetic  ?  Is  this  value  of 
the  primary  order,  so  that  every  one  must  study  the  subject; 
or  is  it  of  secondary  value  chiefly,  so  that  the  knowledge  of 
a  few  can  be  sold,  and  so  made  to  suffice  for  the  needs  of  the 
many?  As  a  discipline,  is  it  specific  in  its  effect,  i.e.  does 
it  raise  the  quality  of  some  special  mode  of  mental  action ; 
or  is  it  tonic,  i.e.  does  it  minister  to  a  general  invigoration  of 
the  intellectual  system?  Such  questions  may  be  asked  of 
every  study ;  and  I  hold  that  it  is  as  reasonable  that  pro- 
fessional teachers  should  know  these  things,  as  that  physi- 
cians should  know  the  therapeutical  value  of  calomel  and 
quinine.  At  least  one  distinction  should  be  made  clear  to 
all  who  teach  —  that  between  the  practical  value  of  a  sub- 
ject, and  its  value  for  discipline  or  culture.  The  subordinate 
distinctions  I  have  indicated  are  of  very  great  value,  but  it 
is  scarcely  reasonable  to  expect  that  teachers  unaccustomed 
to  severe  thinking  shall  understand  them  sufficiently  well  to 
make  a  sure  and  safe  use  of  them.  The  general  spirit  of 
the  truths  I  would  impress  in  what  has  preceded  may  be 
expressed  in  brief,  as  follows : 


THE   TEACHERS'    INSTITUTE  245 

The  Lines  of  Study  for  Teachers.  —  Teachers  should  be 
assisted  in  the  work  of  perfecting  themselves  for  the  duties 
of  their  office  by  being  stimulated  to  self-activity  along 
three  main  lines  of  study : 

(1)  Their  knowledge   of    subjects   should  be   gradually 
extended.     Arithmetic  should  lead  up  to  algebra  and  geome- 
try; geography,  to  travels,  history,  and  political  economy; 
grammar,  to  rhetoric  and  criticism;  Latin,  to  French  and 
Italian,  etc. 

(2)  There  should  be   a  steady  advance  in  professional 
knowledge,  strictly  so-called.     In  addition  to  the  algebra, 
the  chemistry,  and  the  French  grammar,  there   should  be 
on  the  teacher's  study  table   a  representative  educational 
journal,   and  the   best   current  books   on  the   theory,  the 
history,  and  the  art  of  teaching. 

(3)  To  counteract  the  narrowing  tendencies  of  professional 
study  and  duties,  it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher  should  court 
the  catholic  influences  of  general  literature ;  and,  in  addition 
to  the  books  first  suggested,  his  study  table  should  be  graced 
with  a  representative  literary  magazine,  and  with  an  occa- 
sional volume  of  essays,  poetry,  or  fiction.     The  aim  I  have 
in  view  is  to  make  the  teacher  a  reader  and  a  thinker,  to 
liberalize  his  mind  with  various  knowledge,  and  to  secure  to 
him  some  measure  of  genuine  culture.     Taking  the  teaching 
class  as  a  whole,  I  do  not  know  what  greater  good  can  be 
done  to  it  than  to  inspire  it  with  a  love  of  the  scholarly 
vocation. 

In  what  has  now  been  said,  I  have  tried  to  express  my 
conception  of  the  aid  that  should  be  rendered  the  great  mass 
of  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  public  school  service.  The 
greater  number  of  these  have  received  no  preparatory  train- 
ing of  the  professional  type.  In  many  cases  there  is  great 
deficiency  in  general  scholarship.  In  only  a  few  cases,  com- 
paratively, is  there  a  confirmed  taste  for  intellectual  pur- 
suits; and  in  still  fewer  cases  is  there  any  degree  of  that 
real,  though  indefinable,  thing  we  call  culture.  This  work, 


246  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

if  done  at  all,  or  at  least  if  done  directly,  surely,  and  method- 
ically, must  be  done  in  part  Itirough  the  agency  of  the 
Institute;  and  we  must  now  study  the  limitations  of  this 
agency,  the  better  to  define  its  special  aim  and  method. 

The  Limitations  of  the  Teachers'  Institute.  —  The  most 
obvious  of  these  limitations  is  that  of  time.  The  course  of 
instruction  in  a  normal  school  covers  a  period  of  three  or 
four  years;  but  the  Institute  must  do  its  work  within  a 
period  of  one,  two,  three,  or  four  weeks.  The  customary 
period  is  one  week,  or  five  working  days.  Prom  this  cir- 
cumstance it  becomes  apparent  at  once  that  a  choice  must 
be  made  between  extension  and  depth.  If  much  is  under- 
taken it  must .  be  done  superficially ;  or  if  thoroughness  is 
the  rule,  the  attention  must  be  limited  to  a  few  subjects. 
This  limitation  of  time  affects  the  method  of  the  Institute 
with  like  precision.  If  class-work  be  the  rule,  then  the 
subjects  taught  will  be  few,  and  the  progress  in  each  will  be 
slow.  If  instruction  be  given  by  lecture,  the  range  of  topics 
will  be  greater,  and  progress  apparently  more  rapid;  but 
the  intensive  effect  will  be  proportionately  light.  The  whole 
question  of  method  is  reduced  in  general  terms  to  this :  Shall 
the  instructor  teach,  or  shall  he  lecture  ?  That  is,  shall  he 
cause  his  pupils  to  know,  or  shall  he  merely  permit  them  to 
know?  I  do  not  propose  to  answer  this  question  at  this 
point.  Indeed,  it  cannot  be  answered  till  other  conditions 
have  been  taken  into  account. 

Another  limitation  to  which  the  Institute  is  subject  is  the 
unequal  proficiency  of  its  membership.  I  am  usually  forced 
to  distinguish  three  classes  of  attendants :  the  interested, 
well-informed,  and  appreciative  few,  who  can  interpret  and 
appropriate  the  best  that  can  be  said ;  the  attentive  and  will- 
ing, but  comparatively  uninstructed  and  incapable  listener, 
who,  at  best,  can  appropriate  only  imperfectly,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, is  always  on  the  verge  of  weariness  and  inatten- 
tion ;  and  the  ignorant  and  the  indifferent,  who  hang  like  a 
dead  weight  on  the  spirit  of  the  instructor.  A  skillful 


THE  TEACHERS'   INSTITUTE  247 

instructor  might  manage  each  of  these  three  classes  with 
success  if  it  could  be  isolated ;  but  to  instruct  them  simul- 
taneously, and  with  profit,  is  as  difficult  a  task  as  can  be 
imagined. 

What  the  Institute  is  not.  —  Now,  recalling  the  limitation 
of  time,  it  must  be  evident,  I  think,  that  the  Institute 
cannot  undertake  the  instruction  of  teachers  in  subjects  — 
it  cannot  give  them  the  matter  of  instruction.  A  teacher 
who  comes  to  the  Institute  ignorant  of  geography  cannot 
possibly  learn  enough  of  this  subject  within  four  weeks  to 
satisfy  the  requirements  of  an  examiner;  and  the  attempt 
to  repair  ignorance  in  three  or  four  subjects  within  this 
period  is  a  palpable  absurdity.  It  must  be  assumed,  I  think, 
that  the  members  of  an  Institute  already  have  the  matter 
of  instruction,  and  what  they  most  need  in  this  line  is  a 
revival  of  their  knowledge. 

Profitable  and  Unprofitable  Reviews  in  Institutes.  —  A  rapid 
review  of  the  salient  points  of  a  subject,  or  even  of  several 
subjects,  is  quite  possible  within  the  period  of  a  week ;  but 
this  requires  the  sharp  and  accurate  blows  of  an  accom- 
plished workman.  The  faults  I  have  most  frequently 
observed  in  the  teaching  of  subjects  are  these : 

First,  there  is  the  aimless  talk  about  a  whole  subject, 
vague  and  pointless,  instead  of  an  incisive  treatment  of  a 
few  essential  portions  of  the  subject.  In  arithmetic,  for 
example,  instead  of  attempting  to  teach  the  whole  subject  of 
Fractions,  it  would  be  better  to  dwell  on  one  or  two  essen- 
tial matters,  as  the  relation  of  numerator  to  denominator,  or 
an  analysis  of  the  process  of  dividing  one  fraction  by  another. 
And  in  Percentage,  if  the  teacher  can  be  made  to  compre- 
hend clearly  the  meaning  of  the  term  per  cent.,  the  whole 
subject  will  become  luminous.  In  this  matter  of  selection, 
the  term  typical  knowledge  will  express  what  I  mean. 

Another  error  in  Institute  instruction  is  to  dwell  by  pref- 
erence on  what  is  merely  curious,  as  the  casting  out  of  the 
9's,  the  cause  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  hair-splitting  in  grammat- 


248  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

ical  analysis,  minute  subdivisions  in  elementary  sounds, 
subtleties  in  pronunciation,  and  quibbles  in  general. 

An  error  of  a  more  general  nature,  an  error  that  is  almost 
a  vice,  is  the  complaisant  indulging  in  mere  platitudes,  in 
anecdotes,  jests,  and  pleasantries,  chiefly  as  a  convenient 
means  of  consuming  time  and  of  making  oneself  popular. 
An  anecdote  that  is  a  pat  illustration  is  wholly  legitimate ; 
it  enforces  a  point  in  the  instruction,  and  it  puts  one's 
auditory  in  good  humor  —  two  excellent  things.  If  we 
keep  in  mind  the  obvious  fact  that  the  purpose  of  the  Insti- 
tute is  to  instruct  rather  than  to  please,  but  that  we  may 
please  in  order  the  better  to  instruct,  we  shall  not  be  likely 
to  fall  into  errors  on  this  point.  x 

To  recapitulate,  the  utmost  that  an  Institute  of  a  week,  or 
even  of  two  weeks,  can  undertake  to  do  in  subject  matter,  is 
a  rapid  review  of  the  typical  or  more  important  topics ;  in 
a  session  of  four  or  six  weeks  this  review  can  be  more 
extended  and  more  minute. 

The  More  Distinct  Purpose  of  the  Institute.  —  Assuming,  as 
I  think  we  must,  that  those  who  attend  the  Institute  have  a 
considerable  mastery  of  subject  matter,  and  that  the  most 
that  can  be  done  in  this  line  is  review  and  revival,  we  find 
that  the  more  distinctive  and  characteristic  purpose  should 
be  to  impress  upon  teachers  the  general  nature  of  each  sub- 
ject, and  the  best  methods  of  instructing  and  governing. 
In  other  words,  the  Institute  is  true  to  its  proper  function 
in  so  far  as  it  is  instrumental  in  communicating  professional 
knowledge,  properly  so-called.  I  will  take  a  very  simple 
case  to  illustrate  what  I  mean.  Why  should  a  child  be 
taught  to  read  ?  In  teaching  primary  reading,  what  is  the 
problem  the  teacher  has  to  solve  ?  How  is  the  new 
(printed)  vocabulary  related  to  the  old  (spoken)  ?  What 
methods  have  been  used  to  teach  children  this  new  vocab- 
ulary ?  Which  method  shall  we  select,  and  on  what  ground 
shall  we  base  our  choice  ?  What  knowledge  does  a  child 
need  in  order  to  name  new  words  for  himself  ? 


THE  TEACI1ER&   INSTITUTE  249 

Professional  Instruction.  —  Systematic  instruction  in  the 
line  of  these  questions  seems  to  me  typical  of  the  best  work 
that  an  Institute  can  do.  In  the  best  sense,  it  is  profes- 
sional work  in  one  of  its  phases.  It  gives  teachers  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  agencies  at  their  command,  and  so  makes 
possible  the  facile  and  versatile  use  of  these  instruments. 
In  giving  instruction  of  this  kind  I  think  the  following 
order  should  be  observed : 

The  purpose  for  which  the  subject  is  taught ;  its  nature, 
as  shown  by  a  proximate  analysis;  and  a  rational  method 
of  presenting  the  subject.  Instruction  in  geography,  for 
the  purposes  of  an  Institute,  might  then  take  this  form : 

(1)  The  purpose  of  geographical  study  is  to  produce  in 
the   pupil's  mind  a  vivid  conception  of  the  earth  as  the 
dwelling-place  of  man. 

(2)  The  unit  of  study  is  the  earth,  considered  chiefly 
with  reference  to  its  surface.      This  unit  is   so  vast,  and 
the  most  of  its  surface   so  remote,  that  the   greater  part 
of  the  knowledge  required  must  be  gained  at  second  hand, 
through  books. 

(3)  In  accordance   with  the   general  psychological   law 
that  the  mind  works  downwards  from  the  whole  to  the 
parts,  and  from  the  vague  to  the  definite,  the  first  pres- 
entation should  be  the  artificial  globe  as  the  representative 
of  the  earth;  and  when  the  grand  outline  has  been  made 
somewhat  articulate  by  subdivisions,  the  details  should  be 
supplied  from  the  text,  and  thus   a  definite  whole  recon- 
structed out  of  the  original  vague  whole. 

Of  course  this  is  only  suggestive.  A  different  philosophy 
would  involve  a  different  method  of  procedure. 

School  Management.  —  Another  branch  of  professional 
knowledge,  of  capital  importance  to  all  who  teach,  is  method, 
as  related  to  school  organization  and  government.  In  fact, 
in  the  order  of  time  this  knowledge  is  prior  to  that  just  dis- 
cussed ;  for  before  a  school  can  be  taught  it  must  be 
organized,  and  when  organized  it  must  be  governed  to  save 


250  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

it  from  disintegration.  While  the  final  purpose  of  the 
school  is  instruction,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  the  real 
efficiency  of  the  school  is  chiefly  related  to  the  mode  and 
degree  of  its  organization  and  discipline.  Teachers  should 
be  taught  to  aspire  to  a  high  type  of  school  organization 
and  government,  and  the  principles  and  rules  of  this  art 
should  be  expounded  with  all  possible  clearness.  In  a 
thing  so  apparently  simple  as  the  making  of  a  programme, 
there  is  involved  a  large  amount  of  pedagogical  knowledge. 
To  do  such  a  piece  of  work  intelligently  and  well  is  a  high 
accomplishment,  of  which  only  a  comparatively  few  are 
capable.  To  organize  and  grade  a  public  school,  and  to 
provide  it  with  a  suitable  course  of  study,  I  believe  to  be 
one  of  the  highest  feats  of  pedagogic  skill.  At  least  the 
elements  of  these  arts  should  be  taught  in  the  Institute; 
and  the  work  I  have  attempted  to  outline  in  this  section 
should  be  ranked  as  one  main  part  of  the  scheme  of  instruc- 
tion. When  it  can  be  done  under  proper  conditions,  a  most 
interesting  and  instructive  item  in  the  Institute  programme 
is  the  concrete  illustration  of  method  by  means  of  an  actual 
class  exercise,  as  in  reading,  spelling,  or  number.  Elemen- 
tary exercises  are  the  best  for  this  purpose,  as  children  are 
least  likely  to  suffer  from  self-consciousness.  It  is  unsafe, 
however,  to  improvise  a  class  for  this  purpose.  A  skillful 
teacher  with  her  own  class  can  alone  be  reasonably  sure  of 
success. 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  relates  chiefly  to  subject- 
matter  and  to  method;  and  the  belief  has  been  expressed 
that  the  limitation  of  time  restricts  the  instruction  given 
in  the  Institute  by  preference,  to  method.  Assuming  that 
teachers  have  some  competence  in  the  branches  to  be 
taught,  our  efforts  should  be  directed  mainly  to  leading 
them  to  know  how  to  instruct,  how  to  organize,  and  how  to 
govern. 

Psychology  applied  to  the  Teaching.  —  At  this  point  it  is 
necessary  to  say  a  word  with  reference  to  what  we  may  call 


THE  TEACHERS*   INSTITUTE  251 

the  subjective  element  of  professional  knowledge — that  part 
of  psychology  which  bears  on  the  presentation  of  knowledge 
and  its  elaboration  into  faculty,  habit,  opinion,. common  sense. 
Much  of  this  grade  of  instruction  ought  to  be  given.  In 
every  Institute  there  will  be  at  least  a  few  minds  of  the 
better  order  that  find  delight  in  reflecting  on  the  rationale 
of  methods,  and  there  are  many  more  that  might  be  easily 
provoked  to  this  kind  of  thinking.  I  see  no  good  reason 
why  the  average  teacher  may  not  be  interested  in  knowing 
the  general  mode  of  mental  growth,  and  the  parts  that  are 
played  in  this  process  by  sensation,  memory,  imagination, 
and  judgment.  One  valid  test  of  good  teaching  is  the  extent 
to  which  it  induces  in  pupils  the  ability  to  think  and  the 
habit  of  thinking ;  and  I  see  no  reason  why  the  instruction 
given  in  an  Institute  should  not  be  valued  by  the  same 
standard. 

In  the  process  of  my  discussion  thus  far,  I  have  made 
incidental  mention  of  several  topics  that  are  of  prime  im- 
portance in  the  actual  management  of  Institutes.  These 
topics  will  now  be  considered  in  moderate  detail. 

1.  As  between  class  instruction  and  instruction  by  lec- 
ture, which  is  preferable  for  Institute  use  ? 

Where  so  much  must  be  done  in  such  a  short  space  of 
time,  the  question  of  method  is  all-important.  The  broad 
distinction  between  lecturing  and  teaching  must  be  kept  in 
mind.  In  mere  lecturing,  the  pupil  is  permitted  to  know ; 
he  has  an  opportunity  to  learn;  he  may  learn  if  he  will. 
On  the  part  of  the  pupil,  the  lecture  presupposes  a  mind 
already  alert,  already  bent  on  serious  acquisition;  or  its 
purpose  may  be  merely  to  awaken  and  stimulate  a  desire  to 
know  —  to  implant  a  strong  motive  for  acquisition.  Class 
instruction,  on  the  contrary,  causes  a  pupil  to  know.  Here 
the  teacher  comes  into  close  relations  with  the  pupil,  and 
puts  him  under  obligations  to  know.  The  actual  difference 
is  about  the  same  as  that  between  advising  and  commanding. 
As  a  general  rule,  the  efficiency  of  instruction  by  lecture 


252  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND   DUTIES 

rises  in  proportion  to  the  growing  ability  and  interest  of  the 
learner.  Its  efficiency  is  greatest  where  there  is  the  greatest 
maturity  of  intellect  and  scholarship,  and  least  where  the 
degree  of  intellectual  awakening  is  lowest. 

The  chief  circumstances  that  favor  the  adoption  of  the 
lecture  method  are  the  need  of  awakening  a  strong  interest 
in  a  subject,  the  need  of  teaching  the  outlines  of  a  subject 
within  a  short  space  of  time,  and  the  need  of  teaching 
matter  new  in  substance  or  in  form,  and  therefore  inacces- 
sible by  other  means. 

If  these  distinctions  are  well  founded,  I  think  it  follows 
that,  in  a  session  of  one  week,  the  typical  mode  of  Institute 
instruction  is  by  lecture,  and  this  for  the  following  reasons : 
Not  much  instruction  can  be  given  in  subjects ;  but  what  is 
given  must  be  select  matter,  and  must  be  presented  by  a 
process  of  rapid  outlining.  The  typical  work  of  such  an 
Institute  must  be  instruction  in  methods  and  principles,  and 
matter  of  this  sort  is  inaccessible  save  through  oral  commu- 
nication. In  all  Institute  work,  an  object  of  first  importance 
is  the  creation  of  professional  enthusiasm  and  a  strong  desire 
for  higher  attainments.  For  these  ends  the  lecture  method 
is  preeminently  serviceable. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  assume  that,  in  this  process  of 
instruction,  the  learner  is  merely  a  passive  recipient.  He 
may  be  this,  but  he  need  not  be.  In  general,  lecturers  do 
not  require  their  hearers  to  reproduce  the  substance  of  what 
has  been  communicated,  the  retention  and  assimilation  of 
the  subject  matter  being  left  to  voluntary  choice ;  but  in  an 
Institute  there  is  no  good  reason  why  there  may  not  be  a 
recitation  of  what  has  been  presented  in  the  lecture.  As 
a  means  towards  this  end,  I  believe  that  systematic  note- 
taking  is  essential.  These  summaries  will  allow  the  mem- 
bers to  recall  the  oral  expositions,  and  will  serve  as  the 
basis  for  the  desired  recitations.  With  these  qualifications, 
I  believe  the  lecture  method  is  the  one  best  suited  to  an 
Institute  of  short  duration. 


THE  TEACHERS'    INSTITUTE  253 

Instruction  in  the  Subject  Matter  of  the  School  Course.  —  In 

a  session  of  two  weeks  considerable  instruction  in  subjects 
may  be  given  in  a  modified  form  of  class  work.  The  prep- 
aration of  assigned  lessons  will  scarcely  be  practicable,  but 
there  may  be  more  or  less  recitation  work  in  the  sense  that 
members  can  be  examined  on  set  topics,  and  can  be  made  to 
exhibit  their  proficiency  by  doing  some  actual  work. 

The  most  satisfactory  Institute  work  I  have  seen  done 
was  in  a  session  of  two  weeks,  where  the  conductor  had 
three  assistants.  The  first  hour  in  each  session  was  de- 
voted to  a  lecture  on  some  professional  subject  by  the  con- 
ductor, given  to  the  whole  body  of  teachers.  The  Institute 
was  then  broken  up  into  three  sections,  and  these  passed  in 
succession  from  one  assistant  to  another,  so  that,  besides  the 
general  lesson,  each  member,  in  every  session,  had  been  in- 
structed in  three  topics,  as  arithmetic,  grammar,  and 
geography.  It  seems  to  me  that  this  is  very  near  the  ideal 
mode  of  conducting  a  two  weeks'  Institute,  as  it  preserves 
the  normal  proportion  between  the  two  methods  of  instruc- 
tion. I  do  not  know  that  any  essential  modification  would 
be  needed  for  sessions  of  three  or  four  weeks. 

Difficulties  to  be  encountered.  —  I  have  already  referred  to 
the  fact  that  a  serious  limitation  upon  the  work  of  an  Insti- 
tute is  the  heterogeneous  character  of  its  membership  as  to 
interest,  intent,  and  ability ;  and  every  conductor  must  have 
debated  the  question  whether  a  grading  of  the  Institute  is 
practicable.  No  one  can  doubt  that  substantial  advantages 
would  come  from  a  sorting  of  teachers  on  the  basis  of 
ability,  and  from  the  opportunity  thus  given  of  making  the 
instruction  more  individual;  nor  can  any  one  doubt  that 
such  a  classification  is  theoretically  possible.  The  main 
difficulty  lies  in  the  cost  of  such  an  organization.  In 
general,  a  multiplication  of  grades  multiplies  the  teaching 
force,  and  hence  the  cost  of  instruction.  With  three  grades 
the  work  is  trebled,  and,  if  the  work  of  the  present  teaching 
force  is  not  also  to  be  trebled,  there  must  be  three  times  the 


254  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

number  of  instructors.  This  difficulty  is  greatly  increased 
on  the  supposition  that,  at  the  second  session  of  the  Institute, 
three  grades  of  newcomers  are  to  be  added  to  the  three 
already  established.  Taking  into  account  all  the  difficulties 
in  the  case,  it  seems  to  me  that  a  real  grading  of  the  In- 
stitute is  impracticable,  and  that,  for  the  present  at  least, 
the  skill  of  the  conductor  must  be  taxed  to  interest  and 
instruct  a  heterogeneous  membership.  The  greatest  diffi- 
culty to  overcome  is  the  indifference  of  teachers ;  and  one  of 
the  best  tests  of  the  ability  of  an  Institute  instructor  is  his 
success  in  arousing  an  early  interest  in  the  work  in  hand. 
If,  at  the  close  of  the  session,  the  members  could  be  exam- 
ined on  certain  portions  of  the  work  done,  and  some  tangible 
credit  could  be  awarded  for  their  proficiency,  one  of  the 
greatest  difficulties  in  Institute  management  would  be  over- 
come. 

I  have  now  presented  the  main  elements  of  the  Institute 
problem  as  it  lies  in  my  own  mind,  and  my  discussion  of 
this  question  has  been  based  on  experience  rather  than  upon 
any  assumed  theory  of  what  ought  to  be  or  might  be.  It  is 
very  easy  to  describe  the  ideal  Institute,  where  everybody 
shall  be  pleased  and  instructed;  but  whoever  knows  from 
actual  experience  the  real  difficulties  of  this  work  will  speak 
with  great  moderation  and  with  many  reservations.  There 
is  no  feat  in  teaching  so  difficult  as  that  of  interesting  and 
instructing  the  heterogeneous  membership  of  an  Institute; 
and  he  who  does  not  feel  the  need  of  revising  his  methods 
after  each  attempt  at  the  practical  solution  of  this  problem 
has  not  yet  learned  its  simplest  elements. 

All  who  are  engaged  in  this  variety  of  educational  work 
have  yet  much  to  learn  by  study,  by  experience,  and  confer- 
ence; but  it  is  fair  to  remember  that  many  of  the  imperfec- 
tions of  this  work  are  inherent  in  the  material  with  which 
we  have  to  do.  These  inherent  difficulties  will  persist  in 
spite  of  us.  We  must  court  fresh  accessions  of  skill  to  the 
end  that  we  may  overcome  the  obstacles  that  beset  our  prog- 


THE  TEACHERS1   INSTITUTE  255 

ress.  And  if,  after  all  our  forethought  and  effort,  the 
results  are  disappointing,  we  must  do  ourselves  the  justice 
to  remember  that  we  are  not  responsible  for  the  limitations 
of  time,  for  inequalities  of  membership,  or  for  original 
ignoTance  and  indifference. 

Aims  of  the  Institute. — The  following  recapitulation  will 
close  "this  part  of  the  discussion : 

1.  The  Institute  should  be  regarded  as  the  chief  agency 
now  at  our  command  for  communicating  some  measure  of 
professional  knowledge  and  some  degree  of  the  professional 
spirit  to  the  great  mass  of  teachers  who  have  had  no  prepara- 
tory training. 

2.  The  Institute  should  supplement,  not  supersede,  the 
normal  school.     It  should  not  claim  to  give  even  the  ele- 
ments of  academic  education  or  to  communicate  in  full  the 
theory  and  the  art  of  teaching,  but  should  inspire  its  member- 
ship with  a  determination  to  gain  the  helps  that  are  offered 
by  larger  courses  of  instruction,  or,  when  this  is  impossible, 
to  pursue  a  systematic  course  of  self-instruction  by  reading 
and  study. 

3.  The  aim  of  the  Institute  should  be  rather  to  communi- 
cate the  best  methods  of  organizing,  governing,  and  instruct- 
ing, than  to  teach  subject  matter;   and  the  instruction  in 
subjects  should  be  mainly  in  the  line  of  review  and  revival. 

4.  When  practicable,  instruction  should  be  made  in  some 
measure  individual  by  an  organization  by  sections,  and  in 
this  class  instruction  the  members  should  be  made  to  take 
some  active  part. 

5.  In  short  sessions,  instruction  by  lecture  and  note  taking 
is  preferable,  but  recitation  should  form  a  part  of  every 
exercise.     In  longer  sessions,  class  work  should  be  brought 
into  greater  prominence. 

6.  The  best  work  of  the  Institute  should  be .  regarded  as 
the  creation  of  the  scholarly  and  the  professional  spirit,  a 
desire  to  reach  high  scholastic  attainments,  and  an  ambition 
to  attain  to  artistic  excellence  in  teaching. 


256  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

An  incidental  purpose  served  by  the  Institute  is  too  im- 
portant to  be  overlooked.  I  mean  the  wholesome  effect 
which  it  may  have  on  the  communities  in  which  it  is  held, 
in  the  way  of  a  better  educational  sentiment  among  the 
people..  In  many  cases  a  school  of  a  high  type  is  impos- 
sible by  reason  of  the  backwardness  and  inertia  of  public 
opinion.  The  people  themselves  must  be  educated  up  to  a 
certain  point  before  an  enlightened  and  skillful  teacher  can 
do  his  best  work.  There  are  numberless  instances  in  which 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of  a  school  has  dated  from  the  time 
when  a  good  Institute  excited  an  interest  in  better  methods, 
and  gave  moral  support  to  teachers  struggling  against  the 
inertia  of  public  opinion. 

Evening  Lectures.  —  This  tonic  effect  of  the  Institute  is 
produced  in  part  through  the  lectures  and  class  exercises  of 
the  day  sessions ;  but  chiefly,  I  think,  through  the  evening 
lectures  delivered  by  persons  who  speak  with  some  degree 
of  authority.  Such  lectures,  to  be  of  real  service,  should 
bear  on  educational  themes,  and  should  be  of  a  character  to 
interest  a  popular  audience.  These  lectures  may  fail  of  their 
purpose,  either  by  being  too  technical  or  by  bearing  on 
themes  exclusively  literary,  scientific,  or  historical. 

Even  when  administered  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances, the  Institute  cannot  be  counted  on  to  produce  on  the 
teaching  class  what  may  be  called  a  constitutional  effect. 
The  popular  lecture  is  by  no  means  a  substitute  for  the 
library  or  the  school.  It  is  invaluable  as  a  stimulus  to  read- 
ing and  study,  and  if  it  does  not  lead  to  this  result  it  is  to 
be  counted  only  as  a  pastime. 


The  foregoing  clear  and  practical  presentation  of  the  true 
purpose  and  scope  of  the  Teachers'  Institute  is  taken  from 
the  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education,  by  Wm.  H. 
Payne,  President  of  Peabody  Normal  College,  Nashville, 
Term.,  formerly  Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teach- 


THE   TEACHERS'    INSTITUTE  257 

ing  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  In  the  views  expressed 
in  this  paper  there  seems  to  be  a  very  general  concurrence 
of  contemporaneous  educators. 

"Academic  instruction,"  says  an  eminent  authority,  "should 
have  a  small  place  in  an  Institute.  The  schools  must  be 
depended  upon  to  teach  the  several  branches  of  study ;  the 
Institute  must  show  how  to  teach  these  branches.  The 
school  teaches  pupils  to  divide  one  fraction  by  another; 
the  Institute  shows  teachers  how  to  teach  the  division  of 
fractions.  Institute  instruction  should  unfold  the  vital 
guiding  principles  of  the  teacher's  art,  and  it  should  present 
and  illustrate  the  methods  which  embody  these  principles  in 
actual  practice." 

"That  the  Institute  should  not  be  allowed  to  take  the 
place  of  the  more  formal  and  extended  training  of  the  nor- 
mal school,  requires  no  emphasis,"  says  Dr.  K.  G-.  Boone, 
President  of  the  State  Normal  School  of  Michigan.  "  That 
it  may  be  made  an  efficient  supplement  of  the  school  for 
hundreds  of  teachers,  the  experience  of  Indiana  has  abun- 
dantly proved." 

There  is  an  apparent  difference  of  views  expressed  in 
these  paragraphs,  one  of  which  asserts  substantially  that  the 
Institute  is  not  to  take  the  place  of  academic  training,  and 
the  other  that  it  is  not  to  take  the  place  of  normal  school 
training,  but  to  be  a  supplement  of  the  school.  There  is, 
however,  no  necessary  conflict  of  opinion  here.  "  An  efficient 
supplement  of  the  school "  is  a  happy  characterization  of  the 
Institute.  Some  instruction  in  the  subject  matter  of  school 
studies  may  be  profitably  given,  without  detracting  from  the 
main  purpose,  which  is  to  "  impress  upon  teachers  the  gen- 
eral nature  of  each  subject  and  the  best  methods  of  instruct- 
ing and  governing." 

The  Development  of  the  Institute.  —  There  has  been  a  sys- 
tematic development  of  the  Teachers'  Institute,  as  note- 
worthy as  its  growth  in  membership.  For  many  years  the 
true  function  of  this  Institute  was  not  generally  recognized. 

SCII.  IXT.   &  DUX. — 17 


258  SCHOOL  INTEEEST8  AND  DUTIES 

The  principles  of  psychology  received  little  or  no  attention, 
and  the  subject  matter  of  the  school  studies  was  regarded 
as  the  principal,  if  not  the  only  matter  to  be  presented  for 
discussion.  With  the  multiplication  and  growth  of  normal 
schools  in  the  various  States,  higher  ideals  in  education 
have  been  popularized  among  the  teachers,  and  the  princi- 
ples of  pedagogics  have  received  general  attention.  With 
each  successive  year  there  is  found  to  be  a  larger  proportion 
of  teachers  trained  at  the  normal  schools  for  continuous 
professional  work  in  the  educational  field.  There  is  a 
gradually  advancing  standard  of  general  education  in  the 
requirements  made  of  teachers,  and  there  is  a  corresponding 
elevation  of  the  grade  and  quality  of  Institute  work.  The 
Institutes  become  more  professional  as  the  members  are 
presupposed  to  possess  generally  a  larger  acquaintance  with 
the  science  and  art  of  teaching. 

The  Influence  of  the  State  Superintendent.  —  The  influence 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  as  a  State  officer 
has  grown  within  recent  years.  That  official,  whose  func- 
tions are  and  must  be  largely  those  of  a  business  manager 
of  the  school  system,  has  become  more  and  more  an  educa- 
tional force,  directing  the  thought  of  educational  workers 
into  new  and  important  channels,  and  securing  the  union 
of  elements  of  educational  power  which  otherwise  would  be 
scattered  and  less  important  in  their  results. 

In  a  number  of  States  manuals  or  outlines  of  Institute 
work  have  been  issued  from  the  Department  of  Public 
Instruction,  the  effect  of  which  has  been  to  secure  for  the 
State  a  general  unity  of  plans  and  of  subjects  for  the  Insti- 
tutes of  the  year.  The  value  of  the  Institutes  thus  directed 
into  a  general  unity  of  plan  has  been  largely  increased. 

The  Influence  of  the  County  Superintendent. — Upon  the 
county  superintendent,  or  commissioner  of  schools,  the  suc- 
cess and  value  of  the  Institute  must  very  largely  depend. 
It  rests  with  him  to  determine  the  character  and  the  amount 
of  the  instruction  to  be  conducted  by  "home  talent,"  and 


THE  TEACHERS1   INSTITUTE  259 

the  work  to  be  committed  to  professional  Institute  instruc- 
tors. An  efficient  superintendent,  possessing  a  personal 
acquaintance  with  the  teachers  of  his  county  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  their  individual  ability,  can  make  the  best  use  of 
the  materials  at  hand.  An  enterprising  county  superinten- 
dent will  secure  educators  of  recognized  ability  and  eminence 
in  the  profession  for  the  lectures  of  the  Institute.  A  really 
able  and  strong  lecturer  will  leave  an  impression  which  will 
be  lasting  upon  the  mind  and  character  of  every  teacher 
present.  How  much  depends  upon  the  county  superin- 
tendent may  be  readily  realized  from  a  comparison  of  dif- 
ferent Institutes  conducted  under  similar  circumstances. 

"The  exercises  may  sometimes  be  pedantic,  often  dog- 
matic, occasionally  irrelevant,"  says  Dr.  K.  G.  Boone.  "  They 
are  known  to  be  in  places  insipid,  or  often  puerile ;  notwith- 
standing which  it  is  believed  that  the  final  influence  in  the 
State  has  been  greatly  to  the  upbuilding  of  truer  educa- 
tional standards,  the  establishment  of  sounder  views,  and  the 
adoption  of  more  rational  instruments  of  culture."  Many 
of  the  Institutes  at  the  present  time  are  remarkable  for 
the  excellent  character  of  their  instruction,  the  eminence  of 
their  instructors,  and  the  great  and  lasting  influence  which 
they  exert.  The  county  Institute  offers  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity for  the  organization  of  Teachers'  Reading  Circles 
and  of  other  auxiliaries  to  the  regular  work  of  the  schools. 

The  Members  of  the  Institute.  —  In  view  of  the  shortness 
of  the  Institute  term,  it  behooves  the  teacher  to  make  the 
best  of  the  opportunities  which  it  offers.  He  should  be 
supplied  with  a  note-book,  and  should  make  copious  notes 
of  the  exercises,  especially  of  those  matters  which  will 
prove  most  serviceable  to  him  in  the  work  of  his  school. 
He  should  give  strict  attention  to  all  the  work  and  miss  no 
opportunity  for  acquiring  benefit  from  it.  He  should  not 
be  reluctant  to  participate  in  the  work,  either  by  conduct- 
ing exercises  or  by  taking  active  part  in  the  reviews  and 
discussions. 


260  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Special  Topics  of  Instruction  in  Institutes.  —  The  Institute 
offers  an  opportunity  for  imparting  desirable  information  on 
certain  special  topics,  which  are  treated  inadequately  or  not 
at  all  in  the  text-books  of  the  school  course,  but  which  have 
an  important  bearing  upon  the  studies,  and  will  add  to  the 
pupil's  interest  in  them. 

Most  of  the  Western  States  possess  a  local  history  run- 
ning back  to  colonial  days.  The  territory  included  in  them 
was  the  scene  of  notable  events  in  the  olden  time  —  events 
which  possess  deep  significance  in  their  relation  to  American 
exploration  and  the  working  out  of  our  national  destiny, 
but  which  receive  at  best  only  a  scant  notice  in  the  school 
histories.  Short  and  sprightly  essays  on  the  early  history 
of  the  region  embraced  in  the  State  will  add  to  the  interest 
and  value  of  the  Institute. 

Facts  of  interest  relating  to  the  State  government  may  be 
presented  in  convenient  and  compact  form,  and  will  prove 
especially  valuable  where  there  is  no  provision  for  the  study 
of  this  subject  in  the  school  course.  A  concise  presentation 
of  the  physiological  effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics  will 
be  found  especially  valuable  to  teachers  where  this  subject 
is  not  treated  in  the  school  text-books  in  use. 

A  brief  systematic  review  of  the  more  important  phases 
of  American  literature  will  afford  suggestions  which  the 
teacher  can  utilize  to  advantage  in  his  programmes  for  the 
birthdays  of  American  authors  and  statesmen.  From  a 
State  manual  of  Institute  work  is  taken  the  appended  topi- 
cal exercise  on  this  subject,  which  will  be  of  interest  to 
teachers  of  all  grades. 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 

i 

1.   The  First  Book  written  in  America.  — John  Smith's  His- 
tory of  Virginia,  from  which  most  of  the  early  accounts  of 


THE  TEACHERS'    INSTITUTE  261 

the  Old  Dominion  are  taken.     It  was  published  in  England, 
and  is  now  a  rare  literary  curiosity. 

2.  The  Earliest  Phase  of  American  Literature,  Theological 
and  Controversial.  —  1.  Eeasons  for  this.     2.  The  first  book 
printed  in  America  —  the  Bay  Psalm  Book,  1640 :  Cambridge. 
3.  Noted  theological  writers  —  Thomas  Hooker,  John  Cotton, 
Roger  Williams,  etc.     4.  Specimens  of  this  period  extant  — 
Cotton  Mather's   Witchcraft  (a  literary  curiosity),  Edwards 
on  the  Will  (a  standard  treatise),  etc. 

3.  The  Second  Phase,  Political  and  Oratorical.  —  1.  Eeasons 
for  this.     2.  Noted  orators  —  Patrick  Henry  of  Virginia; 
Samuel  Adams  and  James  Otis  of  Massachusetts,  and  others. 

4.  Four  Noted  Compositions. 

1.  The  Declaration  of  Independence ;  by  whom  written; 

when  adopted ;  its  remarkable  features. 

2.  The   Constitution  of  the   United  States;  by  whom 

written  (by  Gouverneur  Morris) ;  adopted  by  what 
convention;  when  adopted;  when  ratified  and 
declared  in  force. 

3.  The  Madison  Papers;  their  contents  (full  reports 

of  the  Constitutional  Convention,  etc.)  ;  by  whom 
written ;  in  what  way  valuable  (as  a  commentary 
on  the  Constitution) ;  how  long  unpublished  (over 
fifty  years). 

4.  The  Federalist;  when  and  where  published,  and  in 

what  form ;  its  purpose,  and  its  results ;  its  con- 
tributors, and  their  signature  (Publius). 

5.  Franklin  and  his  Writings.  —  1.  Franklin's  name,  the 
greatest  in  the  literature  of  this  period.     2.   His  eminence 
in  statesmanship  and  in  science.     3.   The  amount  of  Frank- 
lin's literary  work  (which  fills  ten  octavo  volumes).     4.  Poor 
Richard's  Almanac   (which  he  published   for   twenty-five 
years). 

Next  in  order  is  the  more  varied  literature  of  the  consti- 
tutional period.  In  presenting  the  following  subjects,  it 
may  be  well  for  the  Institute  instructor  to  describe  the 


262  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

characteristics  of  the  persons,  omitting  the  names  and  call- 
ing upon  the  teachers  for  the  name  when  a  character  is 
recognized  by  the  description. 
6.   Five  Great  Statesmen. 

1.  Daniel   Webster.      Characteristics:    profundity   of 

thought,  clearness  of  expression,  bold  and  strik- 
ing images,  majestic  diction  and  manner. 

2.  Henry  Clay.    Characteristics :  frank  and  chivalrous 

spirit,  freshness  and  beauty  of  thought,  graceful- 
ness of  language  and  manner. 

3.  John  C.  Calhoun.     Characteristics :  intense  energy 

of  expression,  conciseness  of  statement. 

4.  Charles    Sumner.      Characteristics :    finished    and 

scholarly    address,    exhaustive    presentation    of 
subject. 

5.  John  Quincy  Adams.     Characteristics :  earnestness 

and  persistency,  remarkable  knowledge   on  all 
subjects,  simplicity  of  speech. 


ii 

1.   Five  Noted  Poets. 

1.  William  Cullen  Bryant.     He  interprets  Nature  in 

all  her  forms,  and  is  happiest  in  description  of 
American  scenery. 

2.  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow.     His  artistic  skill 

in  the  use  of  words,  and  the  perfection  of  his 
meter  and  euphony. 

3.  John  Greenleaf  Whittier.     His  earnestness  of  ap- 

peal,  tenderness   of  feeling,   and   simplicity   of 
language. 

4.  Oliver  Wendell   Holmes.     His  keen  and  pointed 

wit ;  his  polished  verse,  resembling  that  of  Pope. 

5.  James  Russell  Lowell.   The  versatility  of  his  genius ; 

rhythmic  beauty  held  secondary  to  his  full  expres- 
sion of  vigorous  thought. 


THE   TEACHERS'   INSTITUTE  263 

2.  The  Historians. 

1.  George    Bancroft.     His    great  work   (History  of 

America,  10  vols.) ;  his  industry  in  collecting 
scattered  records  of  our  early  history ;  his  care 
and  skill  in  ascertaining  facts  and  eliminating 
the  doubtful  and  false ;  the  dignity  of  his  style. 

2.  William  H.  Prescott.     His  principal  works  (The 

Conquest  of  Mexico,  The  Conquest  of  Peru,  etc.) ; 
the  unequaled  romance  of  his  subject ;  the  absorb- 
ing interest  of  his  narration;  his  depiction  of 
beautiful  scenes  and  of  sublime  and  terrible 
tragedies;  his  graceful  and  eloquent  language. 

3.  John  Lothrop  Motley.     His  principal  works  (The 

Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  John  of  Barneveld, 
etc.) ;  the  unromantic  character  of  his  subject  — 
a  phlegmatic  people  of  a  small,  poor,  and  dreary 
land;  the  relation  of  a  tremendous  and  heroic 
struggle  for  human  freedom ;  his  deep  sympathy 
in  the  contest  between  freedom  and  oppression ; 
his  stirring  portrayals  of  heroic  spirit ;  his  analy- 
sis of  character  and  motive ;  his  pure  and  elegant 
style. 

3.  Authors  of  Prose  Fiction  and  Belles-lettres. 

1.  James  Fenimore  Cooper,  our  first  eminent  novel- 

ist. His  principal  works  (The  Spy,  The  Pilot, 
etc.). 

2.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne.     His  principal  works  (TJie 

House  of  Seven  Gables,  The  Marble  Faun,  etc.) ; 
his  choice  of  weird  and  sometimes  morbid  sub- 
jects; his  delicacy  and  skill  in  treatment;  the 
felicities  of  his  style. 

3.  Washington  Irving.    His  popular  works  (The  Sketch 

Book,  Tales  of  a  Traveler,  etc.);  the  purity  of 
his  language,  recalling  the  style  of  Addison ;  the 
grace  and  elegance  of  his  diction,  resembling  that 
of  Goldsmith. 


264  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

4.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe.     Her  greatest  work  (Uncle 

Tom's  Cabin),  and  its  influence  upon  American 
history. 

5.  Kalph  Waldo  Emerson.     The  peculiarities  of  his 

style ;  his  boldness  of  thought  and  originality  of 
treatment ;  the  frequency  of  his  apothegms. 
4.   The  Lexicographers. 

1.  Noah  Webster ;  his  Dictionary  (completed  in  1828)  ; 

his  reforms  in   spelling;    his   influence   on  our 
language. 

2.  Joseph  E.  Worcester ;  his  Dictionary  (completed  in 

1846) ;  his  erudition ;  his  conservatism ;  the  value 
of  his  work. 


VIII 

TEACHERS'   READING  CIRCLES 
PUPILS'   READING  CIRCLES 


CHAPTER  XIII 
TEACHERS'  READING  CIRCLES 

The  New  Profession.  —When  Henry  Ward  Beecher  deliv- 
ered his  famous  lecture  on  The  New  Profession,  he  was 
greeted  from  every  side  with  the  remark,  "  Why,  teaching 
is  not  new ;  it  is  as  old  as  the  hills ! " 

The  advancement  of  any  calling  from  a  humble  rank 
among  the  occupations  of  men  to  one  commensurate  with  its 
true  dignity  and  importance  is  a  noteworthy  step  in  human 
progress.  The  trade  of  the  teacher  is  as  old  as  recorded 
history.  The  profession  of  teaching  is  new. 

The  difference  between  the  two  is  really  very  great,  though 
the  transition  from  the  one  to  the  other  has  been  so  gradual 
that  it  is  not  yet  fully  realized  or  even  admitted  by  many. 
Likewise,  the  profession  of  the  clergyman  struggled  long  for 
recognition.  Speaking  of  the  comedies  of  Shadwell  and 
Van  Brugh,  a  writer  remarks : 

"  Perhaps  no  picture  that  they  drew  appears  to  be  more 
outrageously  libelous  than  that  of  the  clergyman.  It  would 
seem  impossible  that,  in  the  social  gatherings  of  representa- 
tive people,  where  attorneys  and  counselors,  physicians  and 
authors,  were  the  boon  companions  of  knights  and  lords,  the 
minister  was  excluded  from  the  best  of  the  feast  over  which 
he  had  invoked  the  divine  blessing,  and  was  expected  to 
associate  chiefly  with  the  servants  in  the  kitchen.  It  seems 
incredible  that  he  should  never  have  aspired  to  the  hand  of 
a  maiden  of  higher  social  rank  than  a  cook.  Yet  Macaulay 
has  shown  that  these  representations  were  generally  truth- 

267 


268  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

ful  and  correct,  so  far  as  the  clergy  was  concerned,  and  has 
furnished  additional  details  of  the  desperate  condition  of 
the  English  rectors  of  two  centuries  ago.  And  Swift,  the 
great  Irish  dean,  declared  that  even  in  his  day  a  pastor  was 
deemed  an  undesirable  suitor  for  an  ignorant  waiting  maid, 
unless  her  character  had  been  so  injured  by  scandal  as  to 
preclude  all  hope  of  her  marrying  a  butler  or  a  steward. 
And  these  were  ministers  of  the  Established  Church,  the 
noblest  ecclesiastical  organization  of  which  the  English 
gentlemen  could  conceive.  Under  circumstances  which 
must  have  rendered  him  an  object  of  compassion  or  of  con- 
tempt to  the  very  servants  of  great  houses,  the  faithful 
pastor  labored  and  struggled.  Through  generations  the 
inherent  nobility  of  the  ministerial  calling  asserted  itself; 
and  it  has  long  been  splendid  in  its  social  influence,  its  intel- 
lectual and  moral  power,  and  its  temporal  endowments." 

"Why  do  we  complain,'7  said  Col.  Francis  W.  Parker, 
some  years  ago,  "  that  we,  as  teachers,  are  kept  down ;  that 
our  salaries  are  poor ;  that  we,  like  '  Poor  Joe,7  must '  move 
on 7  so  frequently ;  that  it  is  a  question  whether  teaching  is 
a  profession  or  a  trade ;  that  we  take  rank  socially  below 
the  minister,  the  lawyer,  and  the  doctor;  that  the  school 
boards  and  parents  refuse  to  allow  us  to  educate  the  chil- 
dren ;  that  newspapers  and  learned  authorities  pour  such  a 
flood  of  criticism  upon  our  work ;  that  we  must  look  beyond 
this  world  for  the  reward  of  our  patient  toil  ? 

"  '  The  fault,  dear  Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars, 
But  in  ourselves,  that  we  are  underlings.' 

"What  we  complain  of  are  realities,  and  terrible  realities 
too.  I  suppose  it  is  owing  to  the  fallen  or  weak  nature  of 
man  that  he  seeks  for  causes  of  every  evil  outside  of  him- 
self. .  .  .  We  are  here  to  make  conditions.  Complaints  of 
others  and  of  circumstances  sink  into  complaints  of  self, 
when  we  catch  one  glimpse  of  the  immense  possibilities  for 
improvement  in  ourselves  and  in  our  pupils.77 


TEACHERS1   READING  CIRCLES  269 

The  Past  Decade  in  Education.  —  The  past  decade  has 
been  a  period  of  unprecedented  educational  advancement,  of 
activity  in  every  department  of  educational  work.  Great 
progress  has  been  made  in  securing  efficient  supervision  of 
schools  in  the  city,  the  county,  and  the  State.  Notable  nor- 
mal schools  and  universities  of  the  highest  rank  have  been 
founded,  and  in  many  ways  have  exerted  their  influence 
upon  the  mass  of  the  people.  Uniform  standards  of  school 
work  have  been  established  in  many  States.  Organizations 
of  teachers  and  school  officers  —  National,  State,  and  local 
—  have  grown  in  membership  and  increased  in  number. 
Everywhere  a  professional  spirit  has  been  manifested  by 
those  who  are  engaged  in  the  work  of  education. 

Of  the  instrumentalities  of  the  past  decade  which  have 
contributed  to  the  advancement  of  the  professional  standing 
of  the  teachers,  the  Eeading  Circle  has  been  one  of  the  most 
valuable  and  important. 

Associations  of  teachers  for  systematic,  professional,  and 
general  culture  are  not  an  innovation.  Page  insisted  upon 
something  more  than  the  mere  cursory  reading  of  miscel- 
laneous books  by  the  teacher.  Starting  out  with  his  strong 
emphasis  of  the  true  spirit  of  the  person  entering  upon  the 
teacher's  work,  he  clearly  indicated  the  need  of  "a  spirit  of 
inquiry,  of  earnestness,  and  of  progress,"  and  the  necessity 
for  a  knowledge  of  the  work  to  be  done.  He  was  no  less 
insistent  in  reference  to  the  teacher's  need  of  a  general 
acquaintance  with  standard  authors  in  general  literature. 
He  recommended  systematic  reading  and  study.  He  went 
so  far  as  to  estimate  the  number  of  hours  a  day  which  the 
teacher  might  profitably  devote  to  such  work. 

The  First  State  Reading  Circles. — State  Teachers'  Eead- 
ing Circles  have  been  a  development  of  more  recent  years. 
The  oldest  State  organization  of  this  name  which  was  estab- 
lished on  the  plan  now  essentially  followed,  and  which  now 
possesses  the  largest  enrollment,  is  that  of  Indiana;  State 
organizations  of  a  somewhat  similar  character  and  name  had 


270  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

been  previously  established  in  Ohio,  and,  still  earlier,  in 
Wisconsin. 

The  Indiana  State  Teachers'  Eeading  Circle  had  its  origin 
in  the  State  Teachers'  Association  at  its  meeting  (in  Indian- 
apolis) in  1883,  when  the  following  resolution  was  unani- 
mously adopted: 

"Resolved,  1.  That  the  association  proceed  at  once  to  take  the 
necessary  steps  to  inaugurate  an  organization  among  the  teachers  of 
Indiana  for  reading  and  study,  to  be  known  as  the  *  Indiana  Teachers' 
Reading  Circle.' 

"2.  That  this  circle  be  under  the  care  and  direction  of  the  Indiana 
State  Teachers'  Association,  which  shall  make  rules  for  its  manage- 
ment, arrange  its  course,  direct  its  examinations,  and  confer  such 
honors  as  it  may  determine. 

"3.  That  this  association  proceed  to  choose  a  board  of  directors,  to 
which  shall  be  intrusted  the  selection  of  a  course  of  professional  and 
literary  reading,  the  issuing  of  certificates  of  progress,  and  the  granting 
of  diplomas  as  evidence  of  its  completion. 

"  4.  The  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Indiana  Teachers'  Reading  Circle 
shall  consist  of  eight  members,  selected  by  the  association  from  its  own 
members,  two  of  whom  shall  serve  for  one  year,  two  for  two  years,  two 
for  three  years,  and  two  for  four  years  ;  and  hereafter  two  members 
shall  be  elected  annually  to  serve  for  four  years.  The  Board  of  Direc- 
tors shall  select  its  officers,  arrange  its  meetings,  and  record  and  pub- 
lish its  proceedings." 

A  plan  of  organization  was  prepared  in  March,  following, 
by  the  Eeading  Circle  Board,  and  has  remained  without 
essential  modification  to  the  present  time.  The  plan  pro- 
vided for  the  establishment  of  a  Eeading  Circle  Bureau  at 
the  Department  of  Public  Instruction ;  for  county  and  local 
organizations,  under  the  direction  of  the  county  superin- 
tendents ;  for  the  publication  of  outlines  and  notes  of  Eead- 
ing Circle  work,  as  an  aid  to  the  teacher ;  for  examinations 
of  teachers  upon  the  work  performed,  at  the  close  of  the 
school  year. 

The  establishment  of  Eeading  Circles  proceeded  rapidly. 
In  January,  1885,  similar  organizations  were  effected  in 
Iowa  and  in  Illinois.  In  June  of  the  same  year  Minnesota 


TEACHERS'    BEADING   CIRCLES  271 

and  Michigan  followed.  In  July  Wisconsin  established 
a  new  State  organization.  In  August  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
and  Kentucky  followed.  In  September  Texas  organized 
a  Heading  Circle;  in  October,  Tennessee;  in  November, 
Alabama  and  the  Territory  of  Dakota ;  in  December,  North 
Carolina.  In  these  various  States  there  was  a  general  ten- 
dency to  follow  essentially  the  plan  adopted  in  Indiana,  in 
its  leading  features. 

An  interesting  exhibit  of  Beading  Circle  work  was  dis- 
played at  the  Cotton  Centennial  celebration  conducted  at 
New  Orleans,  in  1885,  and  also  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition 
of  the  same  year. 

Discussion  of  Reading  Circle  Work.  —  In  March,  1886,  at 
the  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  of  the 
National  Educational  Association,  at  Washington,  the  sub- 
ject of  Reading  Circle  organization  and  work  was  thor- 
oughly discussed.  Papers  were  read  on  the  subject  by  Dr. 
Jerome  Allen,  editor  of  the  New  York  School  Journal,  and 
Hubert  M.  Skinner,  Deputy  State  Superintendent  of  Indiana, 
and  Secretary  of  the  organization  in  that  State. 

Dr.  Allen  emphasized  the  professional  side  of  the  work, 
and  regarded  this  as  fully  sufficient  in  itself  for  a  Beading 
Circle  course.  He  said :  — 

"  If  a  teacher  knows  all  science,  literature,  and  art,  and 
does  not  know  the  mind  and  its  growth,  he  is  not  prepared 
to  teach.  His  work  is  empirical. 

"So  far,  we  have  discussed  knowledge  essential  to  a 
teacher's  success.  Closely  connected  with  this  are  methods 
of  instruction,  organization,  school  government,  school  sys- 
tems, school  laws,  and  the  history  of  education.  Without 
a  knowledge  of  these  subjects  there  may  be  a  great  degree 
of  success,  if  there  is  possessed  a  thorough  and  practical 
knowledge  of  the  nature  and  growth  of  the  mind ;  but  it  is 
essential  that  this  should  be  supplemented  by  the  topics 
of  secondary  knowledge  just  mentioned.  This  should  come 
as  a  part  of  the  necessary  reading  of  all  teachers,  especially 


272  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

of  those  who  have  not  had  the  advantages  of  professional 
training. 

"It  is  objected  that  teachers  cannot  be  made  to  read  pro- 
fessional and  psychological  literature ;  that  they  have  little 
time  to  read  anything ;  that  we  have  no  science  of  educa- 
tion ;  and  that  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  know  something 
about  history,  literature,  science,  art,  and  everyday  affairs. 
Now  the  fact  is,  we  have  a  science  of  education ;  and  some 
knowledge  of  the  common  branches  is  possessed  by  all 
teachers.  It  is  essential  for  us  to  train  up  professional 
teachers  as  fast  as  possible.  Empirical  work  is  ruining  our 
schools.  Our  salvation  lies  in  better  professional  knowledge 
and  practice,  through  which  we  shall  get  more  permanency. 
To  dissipate  and  scatter  our  forces  by  recommending  teachers 
to  read  everything,  will  be  to  destroy  all  definite  work  and 
special  preparation. 

"  Our  Teachers'  Eeading  Circles  are  set  to  do  one  thing 
—  the  improvement  of  teachers  as  teachers.  Any  attempt 
to  cover  the  whole  range  of  literature  in  a  Eeading  Circle 
course  designed  for  the  rank  and  file  of  those  engaged  in  the 
vocation,  will  fail  of  making  the  quality  of  instruction  ap- 
preciably better.  <  This  one  thing  I  do/  was  the  motto  of 
St.  Paul,  and  it  has  been  the  motto  of  all  successful  men 
and  organizations  since  his  time.  The  lawyers'  reading  club 
discusses  law  matters ;  the  doctors'  associations  stick  to  their 
materia  medica  and  dry  bones ;  the  ministers  contend  about 
' apostolic'  succession  and  foreordination.  Why  should 
not  teachers  use  equally  as  much  wisdom  ?  The  time  is 
coming  when  they  will  do  so.  The  very  necessities  of  tlie 
times  will  shut  them  up  to  this  course,  and  no  other." 

Mr.  Skinner  was  no  less  emphatic  in  urging  the  necessity 
for  strictly  professional  study,  but  was  strongly  in  favor  of 
associating  with  it  studies  of  a  more  general  character.  In 
this  he  expressed  the  general  sentiment  of  the  vast  majority 
of  teachers,  and  this  sentiment  has  gathered  strength  in  the 
succeeding  years. 


TEACHERS'   READING   CIRCLES  273 

"  General  culture  study,"  lie  said,  "  is  recognized  as  indis- 
pensable to  the  Heading  Circle  work.  Second  in  the  order  of 
consideration,  it  is  not  second  in  importance,  since  the  suc- 
cess of  the  entire  plan  depends  upon  it.  This  is  the  leaven- 
ing influence  to  which  I  referred.  Teachers  must  have  light 
and  sunshine  drawn  from  outside  the  schoolroom  atmosphere. 
However  great  its  value,  purely  professional  reading  —  a 
constant  reminder  of  arduous  and  unremitting  duties  —  has 
less  attraction  than  the  new  and  broad  fields  of  general 
culture.  While  I  have  insisted  that  teaching  is  a  profession 
(and  this  argues  a  life  work  and  life  study),  there  are,  and 
must  be,  very  many  teachers  who  do  not  make  of  it  a  pro- 
fession in  the  sense  of  a  permanent  occupation.  However 
earnest  is  their  desire  to  do  well,  they  are  not  so  easily 
drawn  to  a  course  pertaining  solely  to  a  calling  in  which 
they  are  but  temporarily  engaged,  as  they  are  to  one  which 
is  more  general  in  its  nature. 

"  With  us,  the  general  culture  idea  has  been  an  essential 
and  life-giving  feature.  It  has  opened  up  new  fields.  It 
has  proved  a  recreation.  It  has  not  only  lightened  the  other 
work  and  lent  a  charm  to  all,  but  has  been  a  cardinal  feature 
—  I  might  almost  say  the  feature  —  in  securing  the  enroll- 
ment, and  in  holding  together  the  members  enrolled.  Nor 
has  it  obtained  in  one  section  alone.  It  has  prevailed  in  the 
Keading  Circles  of  most  States.  A  recent  editorial  of  the 
Intelligence  on  the  subject  we  are  discussing  has  been  widely 
copied  and  read.  I  quote  it  here  :  (  The  literature  of  bare 
facts,  of  mere  information,  of  teacherhood,  is  the  region  in 
which  the  teacher  now  marches  and  countermarches,  accom- 
plishing something,  but  certainly  no  great  triumph.  But 
the  literature  of  power,  of  culture,  of  inspiration,  of  man- 
hood, that  which  cuts  no  figure  in  his  diploma  or  certificate, 
but  which  alone  gives  life  and  potency  to  all  that  his  certifi- 
cate does  contain,  is  a  field  into  which  the  teacher  ought  to 
be  led  with  all  the  steadfastness  and  enthusiasm  which 
organization  and  fellowship  can  possibly  give/  " 
•  sen.  IXT.  &  DUT. — 18 , 


274  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

State  Organizations  Necessary.  —  Mr.  Skinner  made  a  strong 
plea  for  State  organizations ;  and  in  view  of  a  disposition 
which  is  manifested  in  some  localities  to  maintain  inde- 
pendent local  organizations,  it  is  well  to  recur,  at  this  time, 
to  the  arguments  which  he  adduced  : 

"  In  the  first  place,"  said  he,  in  describing  the  Eeading 
Circle,  "it  should  be  a  State  organization.  It  should  be 
neither  National  nor  independently  local.  There  are  various 
reasons  why  this  form  of  organization  should  be  held  supe- 
rior to  any  other.  The  school  system,  to  which  it  is  auxil- 
iary, is  a  State  organization  ;  and  public  instruction  is  more 
or  less  uniform  within  the  limits  of  the  State.  In  Indiana, 
and  in  various  other  commonwealths,  there  is  a  uniform 
course  of  study  for  all  the  country  schools  ;  there  is  a  com- 
mon need ;  there  are  common  requirements ;  there  is  a 
common  system  of  township  meetings,  or  institutes ;  there 
is  a  teachers'  association  for  the  entire  State. 

"  Again,  in  the  State  the  system  is  already  organized.  The 
county  superintendents  are  already  equipped  for  the  work. 
They  are  the  medium  of  communication  between  the  State 
Department  of  Public  Instruction  and  the  individual  teacher. 
There  is  a  peculiar  value  and  appropriateness,  beyond  any 
mere  convenience,  in  a  close  union  of  the  Beading  Circle  sys- 
tem with  the  State  school  system.  With  new  light  thrown 
upon  teachers'  work,  and  a  professional  spirit  aroused, 
Teachers'  Institutes  will  acquire  additional  interest  and 
value.  There  is  a  further  argument  of  no  small  force,  it 
would  seem  to  me,  in  behalf  of  State  organizations,  and  that 
is  that  there  is  a  spirit  of  emulation,  of  generous  rivalry, 
among  the  States  in  educational  matters.  Their  t exhibits' 
at  Madison,  New  Orleans,  and  elsewhere  have  attested  this 
abundantly.  State  systems  may  be  readily  compared  as  to 
their  workings  and  merits.  Admitted  excellences  are  a 
source  of  honest  pride  to  teachers  and  citizens  generally. 
Defects  are  best  shown  and  are  corrected  with  greatest 
alacrity  when  they  appeal  to  State  pride.  And  this  is  true 


TEACHERS'   READING   CIRCLES  275 

not  only  of  educational  matters;  it  is  the  beauty  of  our 
Federal  system  of  government  that  the  various  States  are 
admitted  to  have  their  own  peculiar  needs ;  and  a  diversity 
of  organization,  with  its  attendant  generous  rivalry  in 
excellence,  conduces  to  the  best  results." 

The  Maintenance  of  the  Reading  Circles.  —  The  expense  of 
maintaining  the  Heading  Circles  is  by  no  means  felt  as  a 
burden  by  the  teachers.  Where  the  plan  of  a  membership 
fee  was  adopted,  it  was  generally  soon  dropped.  The  county 
superintendents,  or  commissioners,  gladly  contribute  their 
services  in  aid  of  a  cause  which  wields  so  great  an  influence 
for  the  improvement  of  the  schools.  The  publishers  of  the 
books  agree  upon  a  small  rebate,  or  make  a  contribution  to 
cover  the  expense  of  circulars,  outlines,  etc.  The  work  is  in 
the  hands  of  its  sincere  friends,  the  school  officers  and  teach- 
ers, who  generously  vie  with  each  other  in  their  efforts  for 
its  success. 

American  Pedagogical  Literature.  —  A  notable  result  of  the 
general  establishment  of  Eeading  Circles  has  been  the  devel- 
opment of  pedagogical  literature  in  the  United  States. 
There  was  little  of  this  ten  years  ago.  Books  for  teachers 
had  but  a  limited  sale,  and  were  apt  to  prove  a  source  of 
positive  loss  to  publishers.  The  new  market  for  strictly 
professional  works  stimulated  American  authors  to  the  pro- 
duction of  dozens  of  works  on  psychology,  pedagogy,  and 
didactics.  The  majority  of  these  are  highly  creditable; 
some  possess  merits  which  cause  them  to  rank  as  standard 
and  enduring  treatises.  A  stimulus  has  been  given  also  to 
the  production  of  books  of  general  culture  designed  espe- 
cially for  the  use  of  teachers.  A  third  class  of  books,  partak- 
ing of  the  nature  of  both  the  foregoing  classes,  has  appeared, 
of  which  Boone's  Education  in  the  United  States  and  The 
Schoolmaster  in  Literature  are  examples. 

The  Period  of  Probation.  —  Great  as  the  advantages  of 
Teachers'  Keading  Circles  manifestly  are,  it  is  not  to  be 
denied  that  there  are  to  be  found  teachers  and  school  omcers 


276  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

who  ignore  the  Beading  Circle  as  an  organization.  Some 
there  are,  indeed,  who  affect  to  see  in  it  only  a  scheme  to 
sell  books.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  establishment 
of  the  county  superintendency,  or  commissionership,  a  score 
or  more  of  years  ago,  was  opposed  in  much  the  same  way,  as 
a  plan  to  add  to  the  burden  of  taxpayers  the  expense  of 
another  county  officer.  Still  earlier,  the  establishment  of 
State  normal  schools  for  the  training  of  the  teachers  of  the 
public  schools  was  opposed  as  a  scheme  to  find  places  for 
more  teachers. 

The  county  superintendent  or  normal  educator  who  op- 
poses the  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  and  its  work  in  a  simi- 
lar way  is  but  strengthening  the  arguments  which  have  been 
used,  doubtless,  in  his  own  State  legislature,  and  probably 
will  be  used  again,  for  the  abolition  of  the  superintendency 
and  for  the  crippling,  if  not  the  extinction,  of  the  State 
normal  schools. 

The  amount  of  opposition  which  the  Beading  Circle 
receives  from  school  officers  and  teachers  is  happily  small. 
By  far  the  greater  obstacle  to  surmount  in  the  building  up 
of  the  Eeading  Circle  organization  in  any  State  is  the  apathy 
of  the  school  officers  and  teachers,  who  need  to  be  awakened 
to  the  importance  of  the  work.  In  very  many  cases  the 
teacher  waits  for  the  county  superintendent  to  take  the  lead 
and  display  energy  in  building  up  the  organization  among 
his  teachers.  The  county  superintendent,  on  the  other  hand, 
may  wait  for  his  teachers  to  take  the  lead  and  manifest  an 
interest  in  such  work,  before  he  feels  it  incumbent  upon 
him  to  engage  actively  in  it  or  to  show  any  enthusiasm  in 
furthering  it. 

The  conspicuous  success  of  the  Teachers'  Beading  Circle 
of  Indiana,  which  has  an  active  working  membership  of 
more  than  12,000  teachers  from  year  to  year,  has  demon- 
strated conclusively  what  can  be  done  by  an  earnest,  cooper- 
ative effort  of  those  having  in  charge  the  educational  inter- 
ests of  the  State. 


TEACHERS'   BEADING   CIRCLES  277 

The  Period  of  Assured  Permanency.  —  The  Heading  Circle 
has  passed  beyond  the  problematical  stage,  and  is  now 
respected  as  a  permanent  and  integral  part  of  the  school 
system  in  many  States  —  as  much  so  as  the  State  normal 
school  or  the  county  superintendency.  When  this  point 
shall  have  been  passed  in  any  State,  the  spirit  of  opposition 
will  be  practically  silenced,  and  the  work  will  go  forward 
without  interruption.  The  teacher  will  expect  to  be  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Eeading  Circle,  as  naturally  as  he  expects  to  be 
the  possessor  of  a  teacher's  license.  To  this  consummation 
in  every  State  the  conscientious  teacher  or  school  officer 
should  lend  his  active  influence. 

The  True  Origin  of  the  Reading  Circles.  —  It  should  be 
remembered  that  the  Teachers'  Eeading  Circle  originated 
among  the  teachers  themselves,  and  was  due  to  no  outside 
influence  or  suggestion.  It  originated  at  a  time  when  there 
were  scarcely  any  pedagogical  books  in  the  market,  and 
when  it  was  exceedingly  difficult  for  the  board  to  procure 
books  that  would  answer  the  purpose  of  their  organiza- 
tion. 

The  inception  of  the  Teachers'  Eeading  Circles  was  due 
to  a  spontaneous  recognition  of  the  teachers'  needs,  which 
recognition  was  voiced  most  happily  by  a  lady  teacher,  whose 
name  will  always  be  associated  with  the  most  sincere  loyalty 
to  the  true  interests  of  education.  I  refer  to  Mrs.  Eebecca 
D.  Moffatt,  of  Eushville,  Ind.,  to  whom  was  largely  due  the 
timely  action  of  the  Indiana  Teachers'  Association,  which 
has  been  mentioned  heretofore  in  this  chapter. 

The  establishment  of  the  Eeading  Circle,  as  an  act  of  the 
teachers  themselves,  for  their  own  common  benefit,  possesses 
a  strong  significance.  In  the  majority  of  States,  the  teachers 
and  school  officers  have  cooperated;  sometimes  it  was  the 
teachers,  and  sometimes  the  county  superintendents,  who 
took  the  initiative  in  the  matter  of  formal  organization ;  but 
in  either  event,  it  was  an  organization  of  the  teachers  that 
was  formed  for  their  own  benefit,  in  response  to  the  wishes 


278  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

of  the  "  rank  and  file  "  of  the  profession,  and  in  recognition 
of  their  needs. 

The  Influence  of  the  School  Officer.  —  The  work  of  the  school 
officer  in  this  connection  has  been  deserving  of  the  highest 
praise  for  its  disinterestedness.  The  management  of  the 
Reading  Circle  work  has  entailed  upon  the  county  managers 
a  large  amount  of  work  which  they  might  otherwise  have 
avoided.  Frequently  they  have  not  only  contributed  their 
labor,  but  have  also  subjected  themselves  to  personal  expense, 
as  well  as  trouble,  in  promoting  the  Reading  Circle  interests 
of  their  respective  counties.  In  view  of  all  the  facts,  it  is 
humiliating  to  realize  that  any  representative  person  en- 
gaged in  school  work  should  place  himself  in  an  attitude 
of  opposition  to  so  important  and  essential  an  element  of 
our  school  life. 

However,  it  was  perhaps  to  be  expected  that  the  same 
forces  which  had  been  so  strongly  arrayed  against  the  nor- 
mal schools,  the  county  superintendency,  and  nearly  all 
other  modern  developments  of  the  educational  system  should 
oppose  the  Reading  Circle  with  equal  vehemence,  for  a  time. 
The  period  has  nearly  arrived  when,  as  in  preceding  in- 
stances, all  opposition  will  practically  cease  from  members 
of  the  profession;  and  there  are  no  others  directly  concerned 
in  it. 

In  one  State,  at  least  (South  Dakota),  the  Teachers'  Read- 
ing Circle  is  recognized  by  law,  and  legal  provision  is  made 
for  meeting  the  expenses  of  maintaining  the  organization. 
In  many  other  States  the  Reading  Circle  is  officially  recog- 
nized in  various  ways  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  and 
by  the  State  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  In 
Oklahoma  the  Territorial  Board  of  Education  is,  in  fact,  the 
Reading  Circle  Board,  and  the  entire  management  is  official. 
In  the  majority  of  the  States  where  it  now  exists,  the  Read- 
ing Circle  is  conceded  to  be  a  permanent  factor  in  educa- 
tion. 

The  Present  Duty.  —  Since,  then,  it  is  clear  that  this  insti- 


TEACHERS1   HEADING  CIRCLES  279 

tution  is  to  remain,  what  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  and  the 
school  officer  in  reference  to  it  —  to  lessen  or  to  increase 
its  efficiency? 

In  many  counties  the  teachers  seem  to  be  in  advance  of 
the  school  officers  in  the  matter  of  Reading  Circle  work, 
and  lack  efficient  leadership.  In  others,  it  must  be  said, 
while  the  officers  are  earnest  and  active,  the  membership 
is  far  less  than  it  should  be,  consisting  of  only  the  more 
progressive  teachers,  while,  in  fact,  the  others  are  the  ones 
who  have  greatest  need  for  the  assistance  and  inspiration 
which  it  offers. 

The  course  may  not  always  contain  the  books  which  com- 
mend themselves  most  to  certain  teachers.  What  then? 
Do  they  believe  that  any  course  can  exactly  coincide  with 
the  first  choice  of  every  member  ?  Certainly  it  is  best  to 
keep  in  touch  with  the  fellow  teachers  of  their  State  in  a 
work  of  such  importance. 

Later  Tendencies.  —  There  is  a  marked  tendency,  within 
recent  years,  to  sameness  in  the  courses  of  different  States. 
Without  any  regular  or  formal  concert  of  action,  the  Bead- 
ing Circle  Boards  of  various  States  have  shown  a  substantial 
agreement  as  to  the  books  to  be  read,  and  as  to  various 
details  of  general  and  local  management.  Among  the  later 
tendencies  is  also  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  city  teachers 
to  enter  more  generally  upon  the  work  of  State  organiza- 
tion, rather  than  maintain  a  local  and  independent  Beading 
Circle  of  their  own. 

The  Value  of  Reading  Circle  Work.  —  The  teacher  should 
not  merely  read  the  books  selected  for  the  course.  He 
should  master  them.  But  a  small  amount  of  reading  is 
assigned  to  each  week.  This  should  be  thoroughly  digested. 
The  information,  suggestion,  and  inspiration  acquired  should 
be  added  to  the  teacher's  capital  stock  of  working  material. 
It  should  manifest  itself  immediately  in  his  work  in  the 
schoolroom.  It  should  add  force  to  his  arguments  at  the 
Teachers'  Institutes.  It  should  give  him  greater  confidence 


280  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

in  himself.  It  should  aid  him  in  the  ordeal  of  his  examina- 
tion for  the  license  to  teach. 

Local  Meetings. — In  the  graded  schools  of  cities  and 
towns,  where  the  teachers  hold  weekly  meetings,  the  topics 
covered  by  the  Reading  Circle  Course  can  form  the  subjects 
of  general  and  interesting  discussion.  In  the  country  dis- 
tricts it  is  frequently  inconvenient  for  teachers  to  meet 
together  in  considerable  numbers  for  such  a  discussion  of 
the  reading  assigned. 

In  many  instances  the  teacher  of  the  country  school  is 
isolated  from  others  of  his  profession,  and  finds  it  impossible 
to  meet  regularly  with  any  of  them.  The  teacher  thus 
situated  should  not  be  discouraged,  but  should  make  the 
most  of  his  opportunities  for  systematic  home  reading.  The 
very  fact  that  he  is  making  a  study  of  the  same  topics  and 
the  same  books  with  his  fellow  teachers  throughout  the 
State  should  serve  as  encouragement,  for  it  will  keep  him  in 
touch  with  them  and  in  accord  with  the  best  educational 
thought  of  the  time. 

However,  where  it  is  possible  for  several  teachers  of  coun- 
try districts  to  meet  together  at  stated  intervals  in  a  local 
circle,  it  is  highly  advantageous  for  them  to  do  so.  There 
need  be  no  formal  local  organization  in  the  way  of  constitu- 
tion and  by-laws.  To  some  member  should  be  assigned  the 
direction  of  the  work  for  each  meeting.  It  is  highly  desir- 
able that  there  should  be  upon  the  table  a  copy  of  Webster's 
International  Dictionary)  and  that  it  should  be  consulted  in 
reference  to  words  concerning  which  there  may  be  the 
slightest  doubt  as  to  the  meaning  or  pronunciation.  The 
various  teachers  present  may  read  by  paragraphs,  each 
commenting  upon  the  paragraph  which  he  reads ;  and  there 
may  be  a  general  discussion  of  the  topics  at  the  close  of  the 
reading. 

Another  plan  is  for  the  teachers  to  read  the  assigned 
work  before  assembling,  and  to  devote  the  evening  simply 
to  the  discussion  of  what  has  been  read.  Sometimes  it 


TEACHERS'   BEADING   CIRCLES  281 

adds  to  the  interest  for  the  teachers  to  prepare,  in  advance, 
papers  reviewing  the  assigned  reading,  expressing  opinions 
upon  them. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  desirable  that  there  be  but  little  formality 
in  the  Reading  Circle  meetings,  and  that  the  occasions  be 
enlivened  by  music  and  by  other  forms  of  social  entertain- 
ment. 

The  local  meetings  of  Reading  Circle  members  may  add 
greatly  to  the  social  interests  of  a  rural  community  without 
detracting  from  their  specific  use  and  educational  value. 
Whether  the  teacher  perform  the  Reading  Circle  work 
wholly  by  himself  or  in  company  with  others,  it  is  highly 
desirable  in  every  case  that  the  printed  Outlines  be  care- 
fully followed.  They  may  be  supplemented,  however,  to 
any  desired  extent  by  a  more  thorough  and  critical  review 
of  the  books  read,  and  by  the  reading  or  studying  of  other 
books  and  of  educational  journals  which  bear  upon  the  same 
lines  of  thought. 

One  of  the  most  striking  results  of  the  Teachers'  Reading 
Circle  has  been  the  interest  which  it  has  added  to  the  Insti- 
tutes, Teachers'  Associations,  and  Round  Tables.  It  has 
supplied  topics  for  profitable  discussion,  and  it  has  enabled 
the  teachers  understandingly  to  discuss  them. 

Perhaps  the  best  result  of  all  is  the  fact  that  the  Read- 
ing Circle  unites  in  a  common  interest  all  the  teachers  of 
the  State — places  them  in  touch  with  one  another  —  and 
thus  develops  a  professional  spirit  and  interest  which  is  the 
life  of  the  education  of  to-day.  To  its  interests  no  true 
teacher  can  be  insensible,  nor  is  there  one  who  can  well 
afford  to  miss  the  opportunities  which  it  offers  for  pro- 
fessional advancement. 

The  Present  Trend  of  Reading  Circle  Work.  —  The  general 
trend  of  Reading  Circle  work  for  teachers  at  the  present 
time  may  be  seen  in  the  following  summary  of  the  courses 
of  reading  pursued  by  these  organizations  in  a  number  of 
States  for  the  school  years  1893-4  and  1894-5 : 


282  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 


1893-4.  1894-5. 

INDIANA. 

De  Garmo's  Essentials  of  Method.       Tompkins'  Philosophy  of  Educa- 
Woodburn  and  Hodgin's  Orations          tion. 
of  Burke  and  Webster.  Selections  from  Ruskin. 

ILLINOIS. 

Page's   Theory  and  Practice  of      White's  School  Management. 

Teaching.  Readings  in  Folklore. 

The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature. 

MICHIGAN. 

Swett's  Methods  of  Teaching.  Boone's  Education  in  the  United 

Shepherd's  Historical  Readings.  States. 

Parker's  How  to  Study  Geography. 

IOWA. 

White's  Elements  of  Pedagogy.          White's  School  Management. 
Shepherd's  Historical  Readings.        Readings  in  Folklore,  or 

Kale's  Lights  of  Two  Centuries. 

MISSOURI. 

First  Year  Class.  First  Year  Class. 

Page's   Theory  and  Practice  of     Page's   Theory  and  Practice  of 

Teaching.  Teaching. 

Hawthorne  and  Lemmon's  Ameri-      Hawthorne  and  Lemmon's  Ameri- 
can Literature.  can  Literature. 

Second  Year  Class.  Second  Year  Class. 

Hewett's    Pedagogy  for    Young  Hewett's    Pedagogy  for    Young 

Teachers.  Teachers. 

Smiles'  Character.  Smiles'  Character. 

Third  Year  Class.  Third  Year  Class. 

Compayr6's  Lectures  on  Teaching.      Compayre's  Lectures  on  Teaching. 
Hale's  Lights  of  Two  Centuries.         Kale's  Lights  of  Two  Centuries. 

WISCONSIN. 

Swett's  Methods  of  Teaching.  White's  School  Management. 

The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature.        Readings  in  Folklore. 


TEACHERS'    READING   CIRCLES  283 


1893-4.  1894-5. 

KANSAS. 

Payne's  Compayre's  Applied  Psy-      Painter's  History  of  Education. 

chology.  [ture.      Fisk's  Civil  Government. 

Masterpieces  of  American  Litera- 

MINNESOTA. 

Berard's  History  of  England.  White's  School  Management. 

The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature.        Readings  in  Folklore,  or 

Gregory's  Political  Economy. 

COLORADO. 

White's  Elements  of  Pedagogy.         White's  School  Management. 
The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature.         Readings  in  Folklore. 

NEBRASKA. 

White's  Elements  of  Pedagogy,  or      White's  School  Management. 
Shepherd's  Historical  Readings.        Readings  in  Folklore,  or 
The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature.        Dickens'  Child's  History  of  Eng- 
land. 

NORTH  DAKOTA. 

White's  Elements  of  Pedagogy.          Andrews'  Elementary  Geology. 
The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature.         Hale's  Lights  of  Two  Centuries. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

The  Schoolmaster  in  Literature.        White's  School  Management. 
Shepherd's  Historical  Readings.        Readings  in  Folklore. 


NOTES  ox  TEACHERS'  EEADIXG  CIRCLES 

While  this  home  study  never  can  be  to  the  individual 
what  personal  contact  with  the  teacher  is,  still  much  useful 
knowledge,  and  inspiration  as  well,  may  come  through  care- 
fully selected  reading.  ...  It  need  not  be  replied  that 
some  teachers  have  neither  money  nor  leisure  to  pursue  a 
course  of  reading:  which  shall  the  better  fit  them  for  their 


284  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

work.  It  must  be,  as  it  has  ever  been,  that  present  sacrifice 
must  be  made  for  future  good.  There  ought  to  be  years  of 
preparation  in  hope  of  doing  better  work  and  of  receiving 
better  compensation.  All  over  the  world,  notably  in  our 
own  country,  there  is  an  intellectual  awakening.  People  are 
thinking,  investigating,  getting  abreast  of  the  age.  Teach- 
ers must  not  be  left  behind.  The  times  demand  broader 
culture,  more  exact  training,  and  a  higher  manliness. 

—  EMMA  MONT.  McRAE. 

For  teachers  there  is  needed,  not  only  the  most  thoroughly 
professional,  but  the  most  severe  continuous  training  that 
comes  from  close  personal  studies  or  following  daily  the 
thought  of  a  master.  To  have  thought  or  read  for  a  year 
in  the  light  of  a  single  idea  or  group  of  ideas,  by  which 
one's  reflections  are  unified  and  knit  as  an  integral  part 
into  one's  life,  means  an  advance  in  culture,  both  profes- 
sional and  liberal,  that  can  come  from  no  disconnected 
studies. 

Imperfect  as  is  the  Reading  Circle  beside  the  more  defi- 
nite and  systematic  training  of  professional  schools,  its  ser- 
vice clearly  appears  upon  the  side  of  more  accurate  thinking, 
clearer  and  deeper  insights  into  professional  questions,  habits 
of  study,  and  confidence  in  individual  effort. 

To  the  end  that  such  training  might  be  available  to  teach- 
ers who  were  prevented  in  any  way  from  attending  a  normal 
school,  and  to  continue  and  supplement  the  work  of  those 
who  had  enjoyed  such  training,  it  was  believed  that  a  course 
of  reading  that  should  be  chiefly  professional,  cover  but  one 
or  a  few  lines,  extend  through  the  year,  and  appeal  to  the 
maturest  tastes  and  experience  of  the  readers,  would  be 
effective.  _R  G  BoONE 

Only  a  very  small  number  of  those  who  attend  the  insti- 
tute can  attend  the  normal  school,  the  college,  or  the  uni- 
versity ;  but  all  who  will  may  pursue  a  systematic  course 
of  reading  in  the  line  of  self-improvement.  This  supple- 


TEACHERS'    READING   CIRCLES  285 

mentary  agency  is  now  in  process  of  organization  under 
the  name  of  the  Heading  Circle.  The  purpose  of  this  new 
organization  is  to  support  earnest  and  intelligent  teachers 
in  their  efforts  towards  self-improvement,  and  to  stimulate 
the  careless  and  unprogressive  to  a  diligent  use  of  their 
leisure  moments.  It  is  too  early  to  describe  the  Reading 
Circle  as  an  actual  fact,  but  it  is  permissible  to  discuss  the 
conditions  which  seem  essential  to  its  ultimate  success. 

1.  Teachers  need  to  be  told  in  definite  terms,  by  some 
authority  considered  competent,  both  the  quality  and  the 
quantity  of  work  that  can  reasonably  be  undertaken.    Many 
teachers  do  not  undertake  the  work  of  self-improvement 
because  they  do  not  know  where  to  begin  and  how  to  pro- 
ceed, and  this  degree  of  support  is  all  the  external  aid  they 
need. 

2.  The  purpose  of  the  Eeading  Circle  may  be  very  easily 
defeated  by  proposing  to  teachers  too  formidable  a  task. 
It  must  be  recollected  that  the  spare  time  of  the  average 
teacher  is  very  limited,  and  that  he  has  no  confirmed  intel- 
lectual habits  that  make  study  easy  and  agreeable. 

3.  As  intellectual  breadth  and  literary  culture  are  among 
the  most  precious  endowments  of  the  teacher,  it  would  evi- 
dently be  unwise  to  make  the  course  of  reading  wholly,  or 
even  mainly,  professional.     If  it  were  necessary  to  make  an 
absolute  choice  between  a  course  of  reading  in  general  liter- 
ature and  a  course  of  technical  instruction,  I  think  prefer- 
ence should  be  given  to  the  former.     But  it  is  not  necessary 
to  make  such  a  choice,  and  so  the  study  of  methods  and 
doctrines  should  be  relieved  and  brightened  by  readings  in 
literature  and  history.  _  w  H  PATNE 

A  teacher  will  either  grow  or  decay.  To  grow,  he  must 
read  with  the  definite  purpose  of  adding  to  his  knowledge 
and  increasing  his  professional  interest  and  enthusiasm. 
The  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  is  the  very  best  organization 
yet  devised  to  promote  these  ends.  —  HIRAM 


286  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

It  is  an  important  step  for  promoting  a  better  and  more 
extended  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  teaching.  Such  a 
knowledge  is  an  essential  condition  of  making  the  teachers' 
calling  a  profession.  _  JOSEPH  ESTABROOK> 

It  will  increase  the  educational  stature  of  every  man  and 
woman  who  pursues  the  course.  —  j  H  CANFIELD 

The  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  can  be  utilized  for  two  dis- 
tinct ends  in  the  successful  training  of  teachers.  It  may 
be  the  means  of  furnishing  a  course  of  reading  and  study, 
in  educational  as  well  as  general  literature,  to  such  persons 
as  are  preparing  to  teach  but  cannot  avail  themselves  of 
the  advantages  of  a  training  or  normal  school.  It  can  be 
made  the  means  of  culture  and  development  to  teachers 
who  have  completed  a  course  of  professional  training  before 
entering  upon  their  professional  work. 

The  demands  of  the  curriculum  in  school  and  college  are 
so  exacting  that  students  have  little  time  while  pursuing 
the  regular  course  for  the  reading  and  study  of  educational 
literature.  The  course  for  the  graduated  educator  should 
consist  largely  of  the  best  literature  —  culture  books,  his- 
tory and  philosophy,  essay  and  biography,  poetry  and  fic- 
tion. Whatever  informs,  broadens,  polishes,  and  spiritualizes 
the  man  makes  him  the  better  teacher. 

Added  to  this,  there  should  be  read  and  digested  well- 
chosen  books  upon  the  philosophy  and  history  of  education. 
The  Eeading  Circle  also  affords  opportunity  for  discussion 
and  comparison  of  educational  questions.  There  is  danger 
that  too  much  will  be  undertaken,  and  that  the  reading  will 
be  superficial.  The  reading  of  educational  literature  pro- 
motes the  growth  of  the  teacher  and  keeps  him  from  becom- 
ing a  routine  worker,  merely.  The  country  teacher,  isolated 
to  some  extent  from  contact  with  the  world  of  fresh  thought, 
especially  needs  the  uplift  of  a  good  course  of  educational 
reading,  systematically  pursued.  One  mission  of  the  Teach- 


TEACHERS'    BEADING   CIRCLES  287 

ers'  Reading  Circle  is  to  quicken  the  teacher's  thought  so 
as  to  broaden  and  intensify  his  influence  with  his  pupils, 
and,  unconsciously,  to  inspire  them  with  a  love  for  litera- 
ture that  will  lead  them  to  read  the  books  of  the  great 
writers  in  every  department  of  human  knowledge. 

—  DELIA  LATHROP  WILLIAMS. 

Like  every  other  intellectual  work,  the  Circle  must  appeal 
directly  to  the  individual.  If  the  books  are  to  help  you  to 
a  better  understanding  and  comprehension  of  the  principles 
and  practices  upon  which  your  profession  is  founded,  you 
must  read  and  master  them.  This  must  be  largely  an  indi- 
vidual work.  It  cannot  be  done  by  proxy.  It  appeals 
directly  to  the  teachers  of  the  district  schools,  because  they 
can  do  the  work  alone  just  as  well  as  the  teachers  of  the 
graded  schools.  A  circle  of  two,  five,  or  ten  earnest  readers 
will  undoubtedly  prove  an  inspiration  and  a  help,  but  no 
teacher  who  really  desires  to  improve  need  wait  for  this. 
Get  your  books  and  go  to  work,  even  if  there  is  not  another 
reader  within  ten  miles  of  you.  It  is  the  cheapest  school 
you  can  possibly  enter.  A  good  book  is  always  worth  more 
than  it  costs.  _E.  A.  GASTMAN. 

A  better  indication  of  progress  even  than  the  improve- 
ment and  increasing  number  of  educational  journals  is  the 
formation  of  Teachers'  Keading  Circles.  More  may  be  con- 
fidently expected  from  these  associations  than  from  any 
other  educational  movement  ever  started  in  this  country. 
It  makes  my  heart  thrill  with  joy  to  read  and  hear  of  the 
good  work.  .  .  .  These  Eeading  Circles  show  plainly  that 
the  horizon  is  lifting ;  that  a  new  day  is  dawning ;  that  tens 
of  thousands  of  honest  teachers  in  our  land  are  seeking  for 
the  truth  that  shall  set  them  free.  All  hail  to  the  Teachers' 
Eeading  Circle.  _COL  FRANCIS  w  PARRER 

I  regard  an  organized  effort  among  the  teachers  of  the 
State  to  study  standard  authorities  upon  their  work,  as 


288  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

provided  in  the  Reading  Circle,  the  best  means  of  growth 
available.  The  selections  you  have  made  are  excellent,  and 
I  trust  you  may  give  these  books  a  wide  circulation. 

—  GEORGE  T.  FAIRCHILD. 

The  advancement  of  our  teachers  means  an  advancement 
along  the  whole  line.  The  management  of  the  Beading 
Circle  is  now  where  it  belongs,  in  the  hands  of  the  County 
Superintendents.  _  GEORGE  w  WlNANS. 

No  movement  of  modern  times,  rapid  and  startling  as 
have  been  the  changes  in  school  methods,  has  ever  made 
such  simple  and  economical  provisions  for  self-improvement 
among  teachers,  or  promises  such  wide  usefulness. 

—  H.  C.  SPEER. 

A  system  of  culture  and  education  that  brings  to  the 
home  of  the  individual  many  of  the  advantages  to  be 
obtained  by  direct  instruction  within  the  walls  of  a 
university.  _w  w  JoNE8 

I  heartily  indorse  a  State  Reading  Circle  as  one  of  the 
means  by  which,  if  the  course  be  faithfully  followed, 

teachers  can  keep  abreast  of  the  times. 

— JOHN  GANNON. 

The  State  Reading  Circle  is  one  of  the  grandest  educa- 
tional movements  ever  inaugurated  in  the  State. 

S.    C.    GlLPATRICK. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
PUPILS'  READING  CIRCLES 

Origin. — Pupils'  Reading  Circles  are  an  outgrowth  of  the 
teachers'  organizations,  and  are  generally  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  same  boards.  Dr.  R.  G.  Boone,  in  his  History 
of  Education  in  Indiana  (1892),  says  of  the  organization  for 
the  young  people  of  that  State : 

"  Of  a  very  different  organization  and  with  different  aims, 
but  yet  supplementary  to  the  common  school  system  as 
legally  constituted,  is  the  Young  People's  Reading  Circle. 
After  discussion  by  the  State  Teachers'  Association,  and 
upon  the  favorable  report  of  a  committee  appointed  to 
consider  the  question,  the  circle  was  formally  organized 
in  1888.  Its  management  was  intrusted  to  the  Board  of 
Directors  of  the  Teachers'  Reading  Circle.  Its  plan  includes 
the  recommendation  of  books  of  five  grades  (Second,  Third, 
Fourth,  and  Fifth  Reader  grades,  and  an  advanced  section), 
to  be  read  under  the  direction  and  constant  knowledge  of 
the  teachers  of  those  grades.  The  reading  involves  no 
expense  to  pupils  or  teachers,  other  than  the  purchase  of 
the  books.  The  names  of  readers  are  reported  to  the 
directory  by  the  local  teacher,  and  to  each  reader  is  then 
issued  a  membership  card.  The  books  may  be  bought  by 
individual  pupils,  by  the  school  as  a  body,  by  the  school 
authorities  for  the  local  library,  or  by  interested  patrons. 
The  books  once  read  form,  in  many  communities,  the  nucleus 
of  school  libraries."  The  membership  to  date  is  about 
175,000. 

SCH.  INT.  &  DUT.— 19  289 


290  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Illinois  Circle.  —  At  the  meeting  of  the  Illinois  State 
Teachers'  Association,  held  in  Springfield  in  December, 
1888,  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote,  the  association  requested 
the  directors  of  the  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  to  organize  a 
Pupils'  E/eading  Circle.  Accordingly,  a  course  consisting  of 
two  grades  was  arranged  for  pupils,  and  the  Pupils'  Head- 
ing Circle  was  conducted  under  the  same  management.  At 
the  close  of  the  year  1892,  the  State  Teachers'  Association 
adopted  the  following  recommendations : 

"That  the  Reading  Circles  be  separated  at  the  close  of 
the  present  school  year,  June  30,  1893,  and  that  two  dis- 
tinct circles  be  formed,  the  Teachers7  Circle,  under  the 
management  of  the  County  Superintendents'  Section,  and 
the  Pupils'  Circle,  under  the  management  of  the  Principals' 
Section. 

"  Pursuant  to  this  recommendation,  the  two  circles  were 
separated.  The  Pupils'  Circle  was  reorganized  and  the 
management  issued  its  first  circular  July  1,  1893." 

Iowa  Circle.  —  The  Pupils'  Reading  Circle  of  Iowa  was 
organized  in  1891,  in  accordance  with  instructions  adopted 
by  the  graded  school  section  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers' 
Association,  which  was  held  in  Des  Moines  in  January  of 
that  year.  A  committee  consisting  of  Superintendents  I.  N. 
Beard  of  Osceola,  Dan  Miller  of  Newton,  and  J.  B.  Young 
of  Davenport,  selected  a  Board  of  five  directors,  with  full 
power  to  act. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  Teachers'  and  Pupils'  Reading 
Circles  of  Iowa  are  under  the  direction  of  separate  Boards, 
the  organization  for  teachers  being  under  the  control  of  the 
County  Superintendents'  Section,  while  the  organization  for 
pupils  is  directed  by  the  graded  school  section.  The  Pupils' 
Reading  Circle  Board  adopted  a  single  Reading  Circle  Board 
for  each  of  eight  grades,  beginning  with  the  second  year 
and  closing  with  the  ninth.  A  systematic  plan  was  adopted 
for  interesting  teachers  in  the  work.  Engraved  member- 
ship cards  of  handsome  design  were  supplied  to  the  pupils 


PUPILS'   BEADING  CIRCLES  291 

joining  the  circle.  Each  card  contained  a  portrait  of  a 
noted  author,  together  with  a  sketch  of  his  life  and  the 
picture  of  his  residence.  Subsequently,  a  handsome  badge 
of  membership  was  adopted.  Diplomas  were  provided  for 
pupils  completing  the  course.  This  course  remained  un- 
changed until  the  school  year  1894-5,  when  the  work  was 
extended  to  include  the  years  of  the  high  school  course,  and 
was  divided  into  two  sections,  one  including  the  grades  from 
the  second  to  the  eighth  years,  and  the  other  being  known 
as  the  High  School  Division. 

Michigan  Circle.  —  The  Pupils'  Keading  Circle  of  Michigan 
was  organized  under  the  direction  of  the  State  Teachers' 
Association  in  Grand  Eapids  in  December,  1891.  Like  the 
organizations  for  pupils  in  Iowa  and  in  Illinois,  it  is  under 
the  direction  of  a  distinct  Board,  having  no  connection  with 
the  State  Teachers'  Reading  Circle.  It  was  at  first  arranged 
to  have  a  separate  book  for  each  of  the  school  grades  from 
the  second  year  to  the  ninth.  For  the  school  year  1894-5 
two  important  changes  have  been  made.  An  alternative  book 
has  been  adopted  for  each  of  the  eight  grades  of  the  original 
course,  and  the  work  has  been  extended  to  cover  the  four 
years  of  high  school  work.  Membership  cards,  badges, 
and  diplomas,  have  been  provided. 

South  Dakota  Circle. — The  Pupils'  Eeading  Circle  of  South 
Dakota  is  under  the  Direction  of  the  Teachers'  Keading  Circle 
Board,  and  was  established  in  1892.  The  course  was  origi- 
nally constituted  to  cover  nine  years  of  school  work,  begin- 
ning with  the  second,  but  it  has  been  extended  to  include  an 
advanced  section  for  high  schools.  An  alternative  book  for 
each  of  the  grammar  grades  was  adopted  for  the  year  1894-5. 

Kansas  and  Nebraska  Circles. — The  Pupils'  Eeading  Circles 
of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  were  also  established  in  1892.  Each 
covers  eight  grades  and  supplies  one  book  for  each  grade. 
They  are  conducted  by  the  Teachers'  Eeading  Circle  Boards. 

Oklahoma  Circle.  —  The  Pupils'  Eeading  Circle  of  Okla- 
homa was  established  in  1894,  and  is  under  the  direction 


292  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

of  the  Territorial  Board  of  Education.  Its  course  consists 
of  nine  books,  one  for  each  school  year,  beginning  with  the 
second. 

The  foregoing  presentation  is  not  complete,  for  organiza- 
tions similar  to  those  described  have  been  established  in 
other  States;  there  are  also  some  independent  local  and 
general  associations  for  the  home  reading  of  pupils. 

Representative  Courses.  —  Kepresentative  courses  of  the 
Pupils'  Eeading  Circle  in  various  States  for  the  school  year 
1894-5,  are  as  follows : 

Year  or  Grade.  Books. 

MICHIGAN. 

f  Johonnot's  Friends  in  Feathers  and 
Second  Grade J      fur. 

[  Johonnot's  Book  of  Cats  and  Dogs. 

Third  Grade  I  J°nonnot's  Grandfather's  Stories. 

(  Johonnot's  Stories  of  Heroic  Deeds. 

f  McGuffey's  Familiar  Animals  and 

Fourth  Grade J      their  Wild  Kindred. 

I  Hooker's  Child's  Book  of  Nature. 
I      Part  I. 

f  Eggleston's  First  Book  in  American 
Fifth  Grade J      History. 

(  Scribner's  Geographical  Eeader. 
f  McGuffey's    Living    Creatures    of 
Sixth  Grade  .  Water,  Land,  and  Air. 

Hooker's  Child's  Book  of  Nature. 
[     Part  II. 

Seventh  Grade  .  /  Johonnot's  Stories  of  Other  Lands. 

'  \  Scott's  Ivanhoe. 

Johonnot's  Neighbors  with   Claws 

Eighth  Grade  and  Hoofs- 

Herrick's    Plant    Life.      (Curious 
Forms.) 

The  pupil  has  his  choice  between  the  two  books  mentioned 
in  each  grade. 


PUPILS'  BEADING   CIRCLES  293 

Year  or  Grade.  Books. 

ADVANCED  COURSE.     HIGH  SCHOOL  DIVISION. 

First  Year  (Ninth  Grade)    .        \^^^  Sketch  Book. 

(  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

Second  Year  (Tenth  Grade)      .  j  Shakspeare's  Julius  Ca>sar. 

\  Scott's  Ivanhoe. 

f  Macaulay's    Second   Essay  on  the 

Third  Year  (Eleventh  Grade)  .  J      Earl  °f  Chatham. 

Shakspeare's  Merchant  of  Venice. 
Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers. 

I  Emerson's  American  Scholar. 

Fourth  Year  (Twelfth  Grade)  .  J  Arnold's  Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

I  Dowden's  Shakspeare. 

ILLINOIS. 

Second  Grade  .  j  Scudder's  fables  and  Folk  Stories. 

'  \  Andersen's  Fairy  Tales.    Part  II. 

Third  Grade  .  j  Ruskin's  Kin9  °fthe  Golden  River. 

I  Andrews'  Seven  Little  Sisters. 

Fourth  Grade  .  J  Hawthorne's  Wonder  Book. 

\  Kingsley's  Water  Babies. 
(  Scott's  Tales  of  a  Grandfather. 

Fifth  Grade  J  ^oe's  Our  American  Neighbors. 

Franklin's  Autobiography. 
Coe's  Modern  Europe. 

ADVANCED  COURSE. 

Bulkley's  Fairy  Land  of  Science. 
Mitchell's  About  Old  Story-tellers. 
Souvestre's  An  Attic  Philosopher  in  Paris. 
Ball's  Star  Land. 

IOWA. 

Second  Year ^Esop's  Fables. 

Third  Year Andersen's  Fairy  Tales,  First  Series. 

Fourth  Year Fry's  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins. 

Fifth  Year  J  Jane  Andrews'  Ten  s°ys- 

[  Jane  Andrews'  Seven  Little  Sisters. 


294 


SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 


Year  or  Grade. 


Books. 


f  Ruskin's  King  of  the  Golden  Hiver. 
Sixth  Year     .......  J  Montgomery's  Beginner's  American 

[      History. 

J  Martineau's  Peasant  and  the  Prince- 
'  (  Franklin's  Life,  written  by  himself. 
I  -kamb's  Tales  from  Shakspeare. 
\  Francillon's  Gods  and  Heroes. 


Seventh  Year 


Eighth  Year 


ADVANCED  COURSE.     HIGH  SCHOOL  DIVISION. 


First  Year  (Ninth  Grade) 


Second  Year  (Tenth  Grade) 


Third  Year  (Eleventh  Grade) 


Fourth  Year  (Twelfth  Grade) 


[  Irving' s  Sketch  Book. 

\  Sir  Eoger  de  Coverley  Papers. 

[  Shakspeare's  Julius  Caesar. 

\  Scott's  Marmion. 

f  Macaulay's    Second  Essay  on  the 

Earl  of  Chatham. 

1  Shakspeare's  Merchant  of  Venice. 
[  Scott's  Ivanhoe. 
r  Emerson's  American  Scholar. 
\  Arnold's  Sohrab  and  Eustum. 
I  Dowden's  Shakspeare. 


SOUTH   DAKOTA. 

First  Year Johonnot's  Book  of  Cats  and  Dogs. 

Second  Year  J  Johonnot's  Friends  in  Feathers  and 

'  {      Fur. 

Third  Year Johonnot's  Grandfather's  Stories. 

McGuffey's  Familiar  Animals  and 

their  Wild  Kindred. 
Johonnot's  Curious  Flyers,  Creep- 
ers, and  Swimmers. 
f  Eggleston's  First  Book   in  Ameri- 
j      can  History. 

I  Johonnot's  Stories  of  our  Country. 
McGuffey's    Living    Creatures    of 

Water,  Land,  and  Air. 
Scribner's  Geographical  Reader  and 
Primer. 


Fourth  Year 


Fifth  Year 


Sixth  Year 


PUPIL&    READING   CIRCLES  295 

Year  or  Grade.  Books. 

r  Johonnot's  Stories  of  Other  Lands. 
Seventh  Year |  Dickens'   Child's  History  of  Eng- 

l      land. 

f  Johonnot's  Neighbors  with   Claws 

Eighth  Year ]      and  Hoofs. 

Lockwood's      Animal      Memoirs. 

[      (Birds.) 

ADVANCED  COURSE. 

r  Johonnot's    Ten   Great   Events   in 
First  Year  (Ninth  Grade)     .     .  J      History. 

(  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers. 

Second  Year  (Tenth  Grade)      .  I  IrvinS's  Sketch  Book- 

[  Scott's  Marmion. 

Third  Year  (Eleventh  Grade)   .  J  Amold's  Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

\  Scott's  Ivanhoe. 

Fourth  Year  (Twelfth  Grade)  .  j  Shakspeare's  Merchant  of  Venice. 

{  Dowden's  Shakspeare. 


IX 

THE  TEACHER'S   RELATION   TO 
PUBLIC   OPINION 


CHAPTER   XV 
THE   TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO   PUBLIC   OPINION 

An  Ideal  Teacher  —  Of  all  the  descriptive  terms  applied 
to  teachers,  the  mentor  is  the  most  significant  and  compre- 
hensive in  the  ideal  which  it  implies.  The  Mentor  of  the 
story l  was  no  less  than  a  guardian  angel,  disguised  in  human 
form.  This  character,  as  delineated  by  the  immortal  Fene- 
lon,  is  more  than  an  instructor  of  the  youth  committed  to 
his  charge.  He  looks  beyond  the  individual  to  the  mass. 
His  eye  is  ever  upon  the  realm  which  his  pu,pil  is  to  govern, 
and  his  counsels  are  weighted  with  responsibility  for  the 
trend  of  popular  thought  and  action. 

It  may  be  said  that  there  was  a  peculiar  appropriateness 
in  this,  since  Mentor,  like  Fenelon,  was  engaged  in  forming 
the  character  of  a  Prince,  whose  apparent  destiny  was  to 
rule  a  kingdom,  and  whose  prospective  exercise  of  sovereign 
power  singled  him  out  for  a  training  different  from  that  re- 
quired by  the  youth  in  the  ordinary  walks  of  life.  Granted 
that  the  tutor  of  an  absolute  ruler  has  an  exceptional  re- 
sponsibility, this  ideal,  nevertheless,  is  a  standard  for  the 
teachers  of  the  world. 

Who  shall  say  what  men  in  any  rising  generation  are  to 
leave  the  deepest  impress  upon  the  people  of  their  age? 


1  The  character  of  Mentor  is  portrayed  by  Fenelon,  one  of  the  greatest 
of  French  prose  writers,  in  his  story  of  Telemaque.  Fenelon  was  the 
teacher  of  the  heir  presumptive  of  the  French  kingdom,  the  grandson 
of  Louis  XTV.,  and  the  story  was  written  as  an  aid  to  the  training  of 
the  Prince.  In  the  characters  of  Mentor  and  his  pupil,  Telemaque,  were 

299 


300  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

Did  the  early  teachers  of  Lincoln  or  Grant,  of  Washington 
or  Jefferson  or  Jackson,  foresee  the  careers  of  these  men  ? 
In  Shenstone's  familiar  picture  of  "  genius  in  its  infancy/7 
in  the  village  school, 

"  —  sagacious  foresight  points  to  show 
A  little  bench  of  heedless  Bishops  here, 
And  there  a  Chancellor  in  embryo, 
Or  bard  sublime." 

The  Teacher  and  the  State  —  The  influence  of  the  teacher  in 
the  State  is  recognized  in  a  noted  saying  of  Lord  Brougham, 
which  has  become  proverbial  throughout  the  English-speak- 
ing world : 

"  Let  the  soldier  be  abroad  if  he  will ;  he  can  do  noth- 
ing in  this  age.  There  is  another  personage  abroad  —  a 
person  less  imposing  in  the  eyes  of  some,  perhaps  insig- 
nificant. The  schoolmaster  is  abroad ;  and  I  trust  to  him, 
armed  with  his  primer,  against  the  soldier  in  full  military 
array." 

"  Let  us  thank  God,"  says  Daniel  Webster,  "  that  we  live 
in  an  age  when  something  has  influence  besides  the  bayonet, 
and  when  the  sternest  authority  does  not  venture  to  encoun- 
ter the  scorching  power  of  public  reproach.  .  .  .  Mind  is 
the  great  lever  of  all  things ;  human  thought  is  the  process 
by  which  human  ends  are  ultimately  answered;  and  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge,  so  astonishing  in  the  last  half  cen- 
tury, has  rendered  innumerable  minds,  variously  gifted  by 
nature,  competent  to  be  competitors  or  fellow-workers  on 
the  theater  of  intellectual  operation.  From  these  causes, 
important  improvements  have  taken  place  in  the  personal 
condition  of  individuals.  Generally  speaking,  mankind  are 
not  only  better  fed  and  better  clothed,  but  they  are  able 


really  mirrored  the  great  and  good  Fenelon  himself  and  his  royal  charge. 
The  word  mentor  has  become  fixed  in  our  language  as  a  term  expres- 
sive of  the  tenderest  affection  and  the  deepest  reverence  for  a  teacher, 
counselor,  and  exemplar. 


THE  TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  OPINION     301 

also  to  enjoy  more  leisure;  they  possess  more  refinement 
and  more  self-respect.  A  superior  tone  of  education,  man- 
ners, and  habits  prevails.  This  remark,  most  true  in  its 
application  to  our  own  country,  is  also  partly  true  when 
applied  elsewhere." 

John  Milton,  wrote:  "I  call,  therefore,  a  complete,  gen- 
erous education  that  which  fits  a  man  to  perform  justly, 
skillfully,  and  magnanimously  all  the  offices,  both  public 
and  private,  of  peace  and  of  war." 

"Men  and  nations  are  as  they  are  taught,"  says  B.  C. 
Hobbs.  "  As  a  people  elevate  and  sustain  their  educators, 
so  will  their  educators  be  found,  in  turn,  the  great  instru- 
mentality which  brings  them  intelligence,  freedom,  prosper- 
ity, and  peace,  and  in  the  end  true  honor  and  glory.  The 
time  has  passed  when  the  teacher  should  be  considered  a  fit 
subject  for  the  ridicule  of  the  essayist.  States  and  nations 
must  see  that  where  the  work  of  the  common  school  is  well 
done,  there  are  pleasant  homes,  industry,  happiness,  and 
wealth.  Contentment  comes  to  the  laborer  when  he  sees 
that  worthy,  intelligent,  God-fearing  men  and  women  are 
molding  the  minds  of  his  children  for  useful  and  happy 
lives." 

The  Teacher's  Far-reaching  Personal  Influence. — In  one  of 
Sir  Robert  S.  Ball's  popular  juvenile  lectures  there  is  a  start- 
ling illustration  of  the  transmission  of  the  waves  of  light 
upon  the  ether  of  the  interstellar  spaces.  "  Suppose,"  says 
Ball,  "that  there  are  astronomers  residing  on  worlds  amid 
the  stars,  and  that  they  have  sufficiently  powerful  telescopes 
to  view  this  globe,  what  do  you  think  they  will  observe  ? 
They  will  not  see  our  earth  as  it  is  at  present ;  they  will 
see  us  as  we  were  two  years  ago.  There  are  stars  from 
which,  if  England  could  now  be  seen,  the  whole  of  the 
country  would  be  observed  at  this  present  moment  to  be  in 
a  great  state  of  excitement  at  a  very  auspicious  event.  Dis- 
tant astronomers  might  observe  a  great  procession  in  Lon- 
don amid  the  enthusiasm  of  a  nation,  and  they  could  watch 


302  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

the  coronation  of  a  youthful  queen.1  There  are  other  stars 
still  further  off,  from  which,  if  the  inhabitants  had  good 
enough  telescopes,  they  would  now  see  a  mighty  battle 2  in 
progress  not  far  from  Brussels ;  they  would  see  one  army 
dashing  itself  time  after  time  against  the  immovable  ranks 
of  the  other.  I  do  not  think  they  would  be  able  to  hear 
the  ever  memorable  l  Up,  guards,  and  at  them  ! ' ;  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  there  are  stars  so  far  away  that  the 
rays  of  light  which  started  from  the  earth  on  the  day  of 
the  battle  of  Waterloo  are  only  just  arriving  there.  Fur- 
ther off  still  there  are  stars  from  which  a  bird's-eye  view 
could  be  taken,  at  this  very  moment,  of  the  signing  of  Magna 
Charta.3  There  are  even  stars  from  which  England,  if  it 
could  be  seen  at  all,  would  now  appear,  not  as  the  great 
England  we  know,  but  as  a  country  covered  by  dense  for- 
ests, and  inhabited  by  painted  savages,  who  waged  incessant 
war  with  wild  beasts  that  roamed  through  the  island.  The 
geological  problems  that  now  puzzle  us  would  be  quickly 
solved,  could  we  only  go  far  enough  into  space,  and  had  we 
only  powerful  enough  telescopes.  We  should  then  be  able 
to  view  our  earth  through  the  successive  epochs  of  past 
geological  time;  we  should  be  actually  able  to  see  those 
great  animals  whose  fossil  remains  are  treasured  in  our 
museums,  tramping  about  over  the  earth's  surface,  splash- 
ing across  its  swamps,  or  swimming  with  broad  flippers 
through  its  oceans.  Indeed,  if  we  could  view  our  own  earth 
reflected  from  mirrors  in  the  stars,  we  could  still  see  Moses 
crossing  the  Eed  Sea,  or  Adam  and  Eve  being  expelled  from 
Eden." 

This  beautiful  illustration  of  the  vast  distances  of  the 
stars  is  also  an  exemplification  of  the  indestructibility  of 
force.  The  universe  about  us  performs  the  work  of  a 


1  Queen  Victoria,  who  was  crowned  in  1837. 

2  The  battle  of  Waterloo,  which  was  fought  in  1815. 

3  The  great  English  charter  of  liberty,  which  was  signed  in  1215. 


Til E  TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  OP IX TON      303 

ording  angel.  It  is  so  in  the  moral  world.  Every 
voice  finds  a  sounding  board  and  every  act  a  mirror. 
Influences  exerted,  often  unconsciously,  remain  with  far- 
reaching  consequences. 

Our  echoes  roll 

From  soul  to  soul, 

And  grow  forever  and  forever. 

James  H.  Hammond  has  well  said:  "In  the  strife  of 
knowledge,  unlike  other  contests,  victory  never  fails  to 
abide  with  truth,  and  the  wise  and  virtuous  who  find  and 
use  this  mighty  weapon  are  sure  of  their  reward.  It  may 
not  come  soon.  Years,  ages,  centuries  may  pass  away, 
and  the  gravestone  may  have  crumbled  above  the  head  that 
should  have  worn  the  wreath.  But  to  the  eye  of  faith,  the 
vision  of  the  imperishable  and  inevitable  halo  that  shall 
enshrine  the  memory  is  forever  present,  cheering  and  sweet- 
ening toil,  and  compensating  for  privation.  And  it  often 
happens  that  the  great  and  heroic  mind,  unnoticed  by  the 
world,  buried  apparently  in  profoundest  darkness,  sustained 
by  faith,  works  out  the  grandest  problems  of  human  progress, 
working  under  broad  rays  of  brightest  light  —  light  fur- 
nished by  that  inward  and  immortal  lamp  which,  when  its 
mission  upon  earth  has  closed,  is  trimmed  anew  by  angels' 
hands,  and  placed  among  the  stars  of  heaven." 

The  new  science  of  sociology,  which  is  receiving  so  large 
a  share  of  the  attention  of  thoughtful  persons  at  the  present 
time,  traces  to  their  elements  the  influences  which  direct 
the  social  mass.  A  few  paragraphs  from  a  recent  work1  on 
the  subject  will  be  of  interest  here : 

Guiding  Centers,  or  Authorities,  in  Society.  —  "At  a  first 
superficial  glance,  society  seems  a  mere  mass  of  independent 
individuals,  moving  freely  as  suits  the  whim  of  each,  cer- 
tainly without  physical  coherence,  and  apparently  lacking  a 

1  Small  &  Vincent's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Society. 


304  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

unifying  principle.  We  know,  however,  that  there  are 
psychical  forces  which  maintain  the  structures  and  motive 
the  activities  of  the  social  organism.  .  .  .  There  is  a  group- 
ing of  individuals  about  centers  of  influence  or  authority. 
By  this  arrangement  social  units  sustain  orderly  relations 
to  society  as  a  whole,  and  come  under  the  control  of 
coordinating  agencies.  The  term  authority  is  here  em- 
ployed in  its  widest  sense,  to  describe  any  influence  or 
person  having  recognized  psychical  power  over  social  groups, 
large  or  small.  It  is  by  no  means  to  be  limited  to  politically 
constituted  officials." 

The  Basis  of  Authority  in  Society.  — "  The  main  sources 
of  general  authority  in  society  are  individual  mental  ability, 
reputation,  personal  or  inherited,  and  the  hold  of  social 
groups  and  organs  on  popular  favor.  Personal  leadership 
is  a  well-known  phenomenon  of  authority.  Certain  indi- 
viduals, by  virtue  of  their  known  attainments,  the  strength 
of  their  personalities,  the  fame  which  these  elements  have 
won  for  them,  sometimes  by  reason  of  their  very  names, 
gather  and  influence  larger  or  smaller  groups  of  followers." 

Real  Leaders  not  Necessarily  Conspicuous.  — "  The  power 
behind  the  throne  "  is  often  the  real  governing  power.  The 
true  leader  of  men  is  he  who  understands  men,  and  is  able 
to  direct  the  forces  which  govern  society.  The  really  influ- 
ential teacher  should  exert  his  influence  unostentatiously  — 
it  may  be  even  secretly  at  times.  "  Leadership  is  not  always 
'  personal,  but  is  often  exercised  by  social  organs.  .  .  .  Those 
who  seek  to  begin  a  social  movement  by  winning  the  confi- 
dence and  convincing  the  reason  of  the  appropriate  authori- 
ties, pursue  the  most  direct,  though  not  always  the  easiest, 
method." 

The  Interaction  of  Influence.  —  The  force  of  personal  influ- 
ence, which  sociologists  designate  as  "  authority,"  is  itself 
acted  upon  by  the  public.  He  who  would  influence  the 
mass  must  be  influenced  by  the  mass.  "  The  much-abused 
and  in  itself  dubious  phrase,  'keeping  in  touch  with  the 


THE  TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  OPINION      305 

public/  implies  another  aspect  of  authority  which  deserves 
careful  study.  Not  only  is  authority  positively  exerted 
upon  its  peculiar  public,  but  that  public  in  turn  reacts 
upon  and  modifies  the  authority  itself.  By  this  process  of 
mutual  reaction,  social  knowing,  feeling,  and  willing  are 
produced.  The  successful  leader  is  he  who  is  constantly  in 
such  close  and  sympathetic  relations  with  his  public  that 
they  are  always  responsive  to  his  suggestions  and  recom- 
mendations. .  .  .  The  reaction  of  public  opinion  upon  au- 
thority makes  social  control  a  most  delicate  and  difficult  task. 
.  .  .  Authority  exercises  a  positive  influence,  or  leadership, 
upon  those  under  its  control,  who,  in  turn,  react  upon  and 
modify  the  forces  originally  exerted.  .  .  .  The  initiative  in 
social  movements  does  not  always  come  from  the  side  of 
authority.  When  the  leader  fails  to  recognize  the  existence 
of  conditions  which  demand  action,  he  is  spurred  to  effort 
by  the  influences  which  his  public  bring  to  bear.  The 
social  reformer,  if  repulsed  by  authority,  turns  to  the  public 
and  attempts  to  arouse  consciousness,  and  thus  to  exert 
pressure  on  the  incredulous  or  remiss  leader.  Letters  to 
newspapers,  petitions,  and  personal  communications  to  offi- 
cials, mass  meetings,  etc.,  are  among  the  means  employed 
by  the  public  to  influence  authority."  The  teacher  whose 
personal  influence  constitutes  a  part  of  the  "  authority  "  in 
society  must  study  the  temper  of  the  public.  This  need  not 
involve  any  sacrifice  of  principle  to  expediency.  Conces- 
sions may  be  made  in  minor  matters,  in  order  to  secure 
practical  cooperation  in  things  which  are  more  impor- 
tant. 

Practical  Results  more  Important  than  Theory.  —  There  is 
a  very  important  lesson  on  practical  management  in  the 
famous  resolution  of  the  British  Parliament,  which  declared 
the  throne  vacant  in  1689.  Macaulay,  the  English  historian, 
dwells  upon  it  as  something  full  of  significance  to  practical 
men.  "This  resolution,"  says  Macaulay,  "has  been  many 
times  subjected  to  criticism  as  minute  and  severe  as  was 

SCH.  INT.  &  BUT. — 20 


306  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

ever  applied  to  any  sentence  written  by  man ;  and  perhaps 
never  was  a  sentence  written  by  man  which  would  bear  such 
criticism  less.  It  is  idle,  however,  to  examine  the  memorable 
words  as  we  should  examine  a  chapter  of  Aristotle  or  of 
Hobbes.  Such  words  are  to  be  considered  not  as  words 
but  as  deeds.  If  they  effect  that  which  they  are  intended 
to  effect,  they  are  rational,  though  they  may  be  contradic- 
tory. If  they  fail  of  attaining  their  end,  they  are  absurd, 
though  they  carry  demonstration  with  them.  Logic  admits 
of  no  compromise.  The  essence  of  politics  is  compromise. 
It  is,  therefore,  not  strange  that  some  of  the  most  important 
and  jnost  useful  political  instruments  in  the  world  should 
be  among  the  most  illogical  compositions  that  ever  were 
penned.  The  object  of  Somers,  of  Maynard,  and  of  the 
other  eminent  men  who  shaped  this  celebrated  motion  was 
not  to  leave  to  posterity  a  model  of  definition  and  parti- 
tion, but  to  make  the  restoration  of  a  tyrant  impossible, 
and  to  place  on  the  throne  a  sovereign  under  whom  law 
and  liberty  might  be  secure.  This  object  they  attained  by 
using  language  which,  in  a  philosophical  treatise,  would 
justly  be  reprehended  as  inexact  and  confused.  They  cared 
little  whether  their  major1  agreed  with  their  conclusion,  if 
the  major  secured  two  hundred  votes  and  the  conclusion 
two  hundred  more.  In  fact,  the  one  beauty  of  the  resolu- 
tion is  its  inconsistency.  There  was  a  phrase  for  every 
subdivision  of  the  majority.  ...  To  the  real  statesman 
the  single  important  clause  was  that  which  declared  the 


1  The  syllogism,  or  logical  form  of  an  argument,  consists  of  three 
propositions  —  the  major  premise,  the  minor  premise,  and  the  conclusion, 
as  in  the  following  example : 

Major  Premise:  All  men  are  mortal. 
Minor  Premise :  John  is  a  man. 
Conclusion :         John  is  mortal. 

If  the  syllogism  be  regular  and  one  of  the  premises  he  untrue,  the  con- 
clusion will  be  untrue,  though  strictly  logical  as  a  deduction  from  the 
premises.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  premises  be  true,  the  conclusion  may 
also  be  true,  though  it  may  not  logically  follow. 


THE  TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  OPINION      307 

throne  vacant;  and,  if  that  clause  could  be  carried,  he 
cared  little  by  what  preamble  it  might  be  introduced." 

Public  Opinion  Relating  to  the  School. — Whatever  his 
position,  the  teacher  will  require  to  exercise  tact  and  car# 
in  his  relations  with  the  community.  Perhaps  in  no  other 
position  in  life  is  a  person  so  liable  to  become  impatient  of 
public  opinion.  The  teacher  feels  deeply  sensible  of  the 
shortness  of  the  time  in  which  the  character  formation  of 
the  pupils  is  in  his  hands,  and  becomes  over  anxious  for  the 
results.  He  is  liable  to  become  discouraged  because  the 
public  do  not  at  once  respond  to  all  his  plans  in  relation  to 
the  school.  He  must  remember  that  "  confidence  is  a  plant 
of  slow  growth,"  yet  when  it  has  been  secured,  it  is  a  power- 
ful coadjutor.  When  wrong,  public  opinion  can  be  reformed 
only  by  persistent,  patient  effort.  Reasonable  plans  must 
be  proposed,  and  they  must  be  such  as  to  secure  the  assent 
of  the  common  mind,  which  readily  responds  to  reasons 
within  its  grasp  when  they  are  supported  by  the  sense  of 
right.  Public  opinion  cannot  be  forced,  and  manifestations 
of  impatience  often  neutralize  the  efforts  put  forth  to  reform 
it.  "  Koine  was  not  built  in  a  day."  "  The  years  go  wrong, 
the  ages  never."  The  good  seed  sown  to-day  may  not  ripen 
fully  in  the  time  of  the  sower,  yet  shall  it  grow  in  due  time 
and  yield  both  flowers  and  fruit;  and  the  fruit  shall  be 
after  its  kind  —  sweet  and  pleasant  to  the  taste  and  nour- 
ishing to  the  people. 

The  officers  who  appoint  the  teacher  are  directly  respon- 
sible to  the  public;  and  when  they  fail  to  carry  out  the 
ideal  of  school  work  formed  in  the  public  mind,  the  citizens 
will  elect  others  more  in  accord  with  the  public  will.  The 
teacher,  as  the  executive  of  a  Board,  should  not  be  liable  to 
frequent  change.  He  should  counsel  the  Board  and  discuss 
matters  freely ;  but  when  the  Board,  acting  within  its  proper 
sphere,  has  decided  what  is  to  be  done,  he  should  execute 
its  purposes  cheerfully,  promptly,  and  fully,  or  he  should 
resign.  The  teacher  should  not  feel  compelled  to  resign, 


308  SCHOOL   INTERESTS   AND  DUTIES 

however,  on  a  mere  difference  of  opinion,  but  only  when 
some  policy  which  he  is  required  to  execute  is  opposed  to 
his  conscience,  his  honor,  his  manhood,  and,  in  his  deliberate 
judgment,  harmful  to  his  higher  usefulness  as  a  teacher. 
In  such  a  case  he  represents  more  than  his  own  individual 
interests. 

The  methods  for  molding  public  opinion  are  various, 
and  are  variously  exercised.  Sometimes  the  teacher  quietly 
interests  and  animates  a  few  leading  spirits  in  the  commu- 
nity. Sometimes  he  invokes  the  power  of  the  press,  either 
by  judicious  communications  over  his  own  signature,  or  by 
guiding  the  pens  of  others.  His  social  intercourse  with  the 
citizens  should  be  such  as  to  win  respect  for  his  views  and 
suggestions.  Whatever  the  elements  of  "  authority  "  in  a 
community,  a  shrewd  student  of  human  nature  will  discern 
them  sooner  or  later,  and  he  will  learn  to  touch  the  hidden 
springs  of  power.  Sometimes  a  teacher  of  strongest  influ- 
ence is  found  to  be  quiet  and  unostentatious  in  manner, 
keeping  himself  in  the  background,  while  only  the  instru- 
mentalities which  he  deftly  handles  and  directs  are  seen  by 
the  public. 

The  influence  of  one  mind  upon  others  cannot  be  formu- 
lated into  an  exact  science.  Often  its  exercise  is  wholly 
inscrutable  and  unaccountable.  Human  likes  and  dislikes, 
prejudices,  and  partialities,  attractions  and  repulsions,  have 
often  no  tangible  or  comprehensible  reason  for  their  exist- 
ence. Often  they  are  scarcely  known  to  their  possessors ; 
yet  they  play  an  all-important  part  in  human  society. 

The  teacher  should  be  a  student  of  character.  He  should 
know  men,  as  well  as  children.  He  should  at  all  times  exer- 
cise the  tact  which  is  consistent  with  truth  and  frankness, 
and  which  wins  rather  than  repels  the  social  forces  of  the 
community. 

The  Teacher  as  a  Man  of  Business.  —  Business  men  are 
apt  to  judge  a  teacher  by  the  character  of  his  business 
transactions.  "Does  he  meet  his  obligations  promptly?" 


THE  TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  OPINION      309 

"  Is  he  reliable  ?  "  These  are  questions  they  are  certain  to  ask. 
As  a  class,  teachers  are  not  distinguished  for  their  wealth ; 
but  this,  after  all,  is  not  necessary  to  respectable  standing 
in  the  business  world.  Is  the  teacher  honest  and  prudent  in 
his  personal  and  family  economy  ?  Does  he  live  within  his 
income  ?  Does  he  take  chances  as  to  his  ability  to  meet 
payments  ?  Does  he  "  stand  off  "  his  creditors  ?  Are  his 
representations  to  be  relied  upon  ? 

Supposing  that  in  the  matter  of  truthfulness  in  his  repre- 
sentations, of  prudence  in  management,  and  of  faithfulness 
to  his  promises  and  obligations,  he  is  unexceptionable,  there 
yet  remain  other  considerations  which  the  business  men  of 
the  community  will  weigh  in  making  their  estimate  of  him. 
Is  he  accustomed  to  the  methodical  habits  of  the  business 
world,  in  so  far  as  he  is  concerned  with  it  ?  Can  he  draw  a 
check  or  a  note  properly  ?  Does  he  offer  to  give  receipts 
for  payments  made  to  him,  and  does  he  expect  to  receive 
like  acknowledgments  of  his  payments  ?  Does  he  address 
his  business  letters  with  sufficiently  specific  directions  ? 
Are  his  orders  for  merchandise  always  definite  and  intel- 
ligible to  the  salesman  ?  In  sending  a  telegram,  an  express 
parcel,  a  money  order,  a  freight  shipment,  does  he  indicate 
a  ready  familiarity  with  the  rules  and  usages  of  such  trans- 
actions ?  Does  he  appreciate  the  value  of  a  business  man's 
time  ?  Does  he  carry  a  well-regulated  watch  ?  Has  he  a 
fair  knowledge  of  the  arrival  and  departure  of  the  princi- 
pal railway  trains,  of  the  closing  of  the  mails,  and  of  the 
distance  of  neighboring  towns  ? 

It  is  by  these  little  matters  that  the  teacher  will  be  largely 
judged  in  business  circles.  He  need  not,  he  should  not  be 
merely  a  passive  recipient  of  the  influence  of  the  business 
world.  His  own  influence  will  have  a  bearing  upon  the 
business  habits  of  other  citizens  with  whom  he  comes  in 
contact. 

The  Teacher  as  a  Patriot.  —  Patriotism  does  not  consist 
in  the  unfurling  of  flags  and  the  utterance  of  civic  senti- 


310  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

ment,  nor  are  these  the  best  and  final  tests  of  its  genuineness. 
The  true  patriot  pays  his  taxes  without  evasion  or  subter- 
fuge. He  exercises  his  right  to  vote.  He  is  ready  to  sink 
partisanship,  if  necessary,  in  his  support  of  the  measures 
for  the  public  welfare.  He  is  the  upholder  of  law  and 
order.  He  is  ready  to  perform  all  the  duties  of  good  cit- 
izenship. The  really  patriotic  citizen  is  the  true  American, 
and  his  love  of  country  is  manifested  in  many  ways.  What- 
ever his  birth  or  ancestry,  he  is  an  American  in  sentiment, 
as  well  as  in  legal  designation.  He  believes  in  American 
institutions,  and  does  not  speak  of  them  with  flippant  dis- 
paragement. Nor  does  he  speak  patronizingly  of  them.  He 
believes  in  the  greatness  of  his  country,  and  in  its  future. 

The  Teacher  as  a  Philanthropist. — Teachers  have  excep- 
tional opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  philanthropy,  espe- 
cially in  the  cities  and  towns.  As  the  population  increases, 
there  is  a  growing  number  of  unfortunate  persons  who  need 
assistance  and  counsel,  and  who  suffer  for  want  of  these. 
The  local  provisions  for  the  aid  of  the  penniless  are  often 
inadequately  executed  by  the  proper  officers.  There  are, 
moreover,  many  unfortunate  and  helpless  persons  who  re- 
fuse to  acknowledge  themselves  as  paupers,  and  hence  con- 
ceal their  bitter  need,  sometimes  preferring  even  death  to 
the  disgrace  of  becoming  a  public  charge.  The  indiscrimi- 
nate bestowal  of  money  upon  mendicants  is  not  to  be  com- 
mended. Except  for  the  immediate  relief  of  the  most 
pressing  wants,  gifts  of  money  do  not  meet  the  case. 

The  teacher  who  has  the  generous  confidence  of  his 
pupils  is  in  a  position  to  know  where  a  little  assistance 
would  relieve  untold  anxiety  and  distress;  where  a  word 
of  advice  or  suggestion  would  prevent  a  family  catastrophe. 
A  word  from  him  will  often  secure  a  coveted  employment 
to  a  person  in  need  of  work.  A  suggestion  from  him  to 
the  generous  men  who  give  while  they  live,  will  direct 
into  channels  of  true  charity  sums  which  would  otherwise 
be  blindly  given  to  the  importunate,  irrespective  of  the 


THE  TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  OPINION     311 

merits  of  their  representations.  Quietly,  and  without 
wounding  the  feelings  of  any,  the  thoughtful  teacher  often 
arranges  little  presents  of  needed  articles,  purchased  with 
contributions  that  are  not  felt  by  their  donors.  In  instances 
of  local  distress  which  appeal  strongly  to  the  generosity  of 
the  public,  schools,  like  churches,  have  arranged,  sometimes, 
to  receive  contributions  of  needful  things  from  those  who 
are  competent  to  give.  In  some  schools,  where  each  child 
has  contributed  but  a  single  potato  or  a  single  roll,  the 
aggregate  has  been  a  considerable  supply  of  the  vegetable 
and  the  bread,  which  has  found  its  way  to  the  needy. 

Apart  from  the  immediate  results  of  such  philanthropic 
efforts  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  securing  the  things 
needful  to  the  unfortunate  and  distressed,  there  is  an  edu- 
cational value  in  the  training  of  schoolchildren  in  acts  of 
generosity  and  benevolence.  Children  organized  for  a  good 
purpose  soon  become  thoughtful  in  regard  to  the  conse- 
quences of  their  action.  The  teacher  who  can  enlist  the 
energy  of  the  children  for  such  a  purpose,  prevents  in  a 
degree  the  expenditure  of  that  energy  for  evil.  The  skill- 
ful teacher  organizes  energy  for  good ;  the  careless  teacher 
allows  it  to  run  to  waste. 

As  a  result  of  the  teacher's  suggestion,  pupils  sometimes 
organize  themselves  into  little  societies  for  various  purposes. 
Sometimes  they  may  form  a  general  society  with  committees 
on  various  subjects,  as,  for  instance,  temperance,  the  pre- 
vention of  cruelty  to  animals,  care  for  the  aged  and  the 
poor,  personal  purity,  special  lines  of  reading,  etc.  Where 
the  conditions  are  favorable,  the  plan  is  excellent.  The 
things  of  importance  in  life's  best  work  will  engage  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  in  such  a  society  at  a  time  when 
character  is  taking  a  "holding  turn."  For  a  case  in  point, 
a  brief  sketch  written  by  a  stranger  to  a  local  newspaper 
tells  of  a  young  orphan  girl  —  a  teacher — far  from  home 
scenes,  who  is  remembered  for  having  taken  an  active  part 
in  every  good  word  and  work.  She  organized  her  pupils  as 


312  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTTES 

an  auxiliary  to  the  society  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to 
animals,  and  for  personal  purity  in  thought,  in  word,  and  in 
deed.  She  walked  a  long  way  weekly  to  teach  in  a  Sunday 
school  where  she  believed  she  could  do  the  most  good.  She 
performed  all  her  duties  well,  and  neglected  nothing  of  her 
regular  work  as  a  consequence  of  her  other  assumed  duties. 
She  died  at  her  work,  and  the  public  mourned  and  lamented. 
She  had  become  a  part  of  the  public  life  for  good,  and  her 
works  still  live  in  the  community  and  will  grow  as  the  seed 
planted  by  the  water  brooks. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  systematic  philanthropy 
should  be  left  to  the  wealthy.  Many  of  the  most  notable 
philanthropists  of  the  world  were  poor  —  some  of  them  very 
poor.  "  The  Man  of  Eoss  " x  possessed  a  very  moderate  in- 
come for  a  person  of  his  station  in  life.  Indeed,  it  might 
well  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  his  means  sufficed  to  main- 
tain him.  Yet  what  a  work  was  performed  by  him  in  an 
humble  way,  and  how  his  example  lives  as  an  inspiration  to 
all  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race !  So  valuable  is  the  lesson  of 
such  a  life,  that  the  following  verses  from  Pope  will  not  be 
deemed  out  of  place  in  this  connection : 

"  Who  hung  with  woods  yon  mountain's  sultry  brow  ? 
From  the  dry  rock,  who  bade  the  waters  flow  ? 
Not  to  the  skies  in  useless  columns  tossed, 
Or  in  proud  falls  magnificently  lost, 
But  clear  and  artless,  pouring,  through  the  plain, 
Health  to  the  sick,  and  solace  to  the  swain. 
Whose  causeway  parts  the  vale  with  shady  rows  ? 
Whose  seats  the  weary  traveler  repose  ? 
Who  taught  that  heaven-directed  spire  to  rise  ? 
4  The  Man  of  .Ross,'  each  lisping  babe  replies. 
Behold  the  market  place  with  poor  o'erspread  ; 
The  Man  of  Boss  divides  the  weekly  bread  ; 


i  The  real  name  of  The  Man  of  Ross  was  John  Kyrle.  He  died  in 
1724,  at  the  age  of  ninety  years,  and  was  buried  in  the  parish  church 
of  Ross,  in  Herefordshire,  England. 


THE  TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  OPINION      313 

He  feeds  yon  almshouse,  neat,  but  void  of  state, 
Where  age  and  want  sit  smiling  at  the  gate  ; 
Him  portioned  maids,  apprenticed  orphans  blessed, 
The  young  who  labor,  and  the  old  who  rest. 
Is  any  sick,  The  Man  of  Ross  relieves, 
Prescribes,  attends,  the  medicine  makes,  and  gives. 
Is  there  a  variance,  enter  but  his  door, 
Balked  are  the  courts,  and  contest  is  no  more. 
Despairing  quacks  with  curses  fled  the  place, 
And  vile  attorneys,  now  a  useless  race. 

Thrice  happy  man,  enabled  to  pursue 
What  all  so  wish,  but  want  the  power  to  do  ; 
Oh,  say,  what  sums  that  generous  hand  supply  ? 
What  mines,  to  swell  that  boundless  charity  ? 

Of  debts,  and  taxes,  wife  and  children  clear, 
This  man  possessed  — five  hundred  pounds  a  year. 
Blush,  grandeur,  blush !    Proud  courts,  withdraw  your  blaze ! 
Ye  little  stars,  hide  your  diminished  rays  ! 

And  what  ?    No  monument,  inscription,  stone  ? 
His  race,  his  form,  his  name  almost  unknown." 

The  Teacher  in  Society.  —  The  teacher  should  not  be  a 
recluse.  "Society,"  says  Dewey,  "is  the  great  educator. 
More  than  universities,  more  than  schools,  more  than  books, 
society  educates.  Xature  is  the  schoolhouse,  and  many  les- 
sons are  written  upon  its  walls;  but  man  is  the  effective 
teacher.  Parents,  relatives,  friends,  associates,  social  man- 
ners, maxims,  morals,  worships,  the  daily  example,  the 
fireside  conversation,  the  casual  interview,  the  spirit  that 
breathes  through  the  whole  atmosphere  of  life  —  these  are 
the  powers  and  influences  that  train  the  mass  of  mankind. 
Even  books,  which  are  daily  assuming  a  larger  place  in 
human  training,  are  but  the  influence  of  man  on  man.  It  is 
evident  that  one  of  the  leading  and  ordained  means  by  which 
men  are  raised  in  the  scale  of  knowledge  and  virtue  is  the 
conversation,  example,  influence  of  men  superior  to  them- 
selves. It  seems,  if  one  may  say  so,  to  be  the  purpose,  the 
intent,  the  effort  of  nature  —  of  Providence  —  to  bring  men 
together." 


314  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

The  teacher's  manner  in  society  should  be  that  of  a  man 
among  men.  "The  so-called  practical  men,"  says  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson,  "  sneer  at  speculative  men,  as  if,  because 
they  speculate  or  see,  they  could  do  nothing.  I  have  heard 
it  said  that  the  clergy  —  who  are  always  more  universally 
than  any  other  class,  the  scholars  of  their  day  —  are  ad- 
dressed as  women ;  that  the  rough  spontaneous  conversation 
of  men  they  do  not  hear,  but  only  a  mincing  and  diluted 
speech.  They  are  often  virtually  disfranchised;  and,  in- 
deed, there  are  advocates  for  their  celibacy.  As  far  as  this 
is  true  of  the  studious  classes,  it  is  not  just  and  wise." 

Much  has  been  written  concerning  the  teacher's  social 
position  in  other  countries.  D'Arcy  Thompson,  who  resigned 
his  position  as  Classical  Master  in  the  Edinburgh  Academy 
to  become  a  Professor  in  the  Queen's  College  at  Galway,  is 
severe  in  his  strictures  upon  the  treatment  which  the  most 
cultured  and  worthy  schoolmasters  of  Scotland  receive  in 
social  life.  In  this  country,  where  to  a  greater  extent  than 
elsewhere  the  social  position  of  the  individual  is  based  upon 
his  individual  merit  and  worth,  and  paralyzing  notions  of 
social  caste  do  not  obtain,  the  social  position  of  the  school- 
master is  very  much  what  he  chooses  to  make  it. 

The  teacher  should  be  qualified  to  hold  a  respectable  place 
in  representative  social  circles  of  his  community.  He  is 
not  expected  to  be  a  "  society  man "  in  the  usual  flippant 
sense  of  that  term;  but  society  will  quickly  hold  him  to 
account  for  any  coarseness  of  manner  and  disregard  of  the 
amenities  of  polite  society.  There  is  a  sense  in  which  the 
adage  "  When  you  are  at  Rome,  do  as  the  Romans  do  "  is  a 
correct  guide  to  conduct.  In  whatever  society  the  teacher 
may  find  himself,  he  should  avoid  being  conspicuous  by  rea- 
son of  contrast  with  others.  He  can  concede  something  to 
local  usage,  even  when  it  may  not  coincide  exactly  with  his 
ideal  of  absolute  propriety. 

To  bring  his  profession  into  discussion  at  inopportune 
times  and  places  is  not  more  justifiable  than  "  shop  talk  "  of 


THE  TEACHER'S  RELATION  TO  PUBLIC  OPINION     815 

merchants  would  be  in  the  parlors  of  their  friends.  If  the 
teacher  has  acquired  through  long  intercourse  with  pupils 
a  professional  tone  and  bearing  that  are  distinctive  and 
marked,  he  should  avoid  manifesting  these  in  society.  The 
manner  of  a  learned  pundit  and  a  walking  cyclopaedia  does 
not  add  to  a  person's  power  of  pleasing. 

Familiarity  with  good  society  is  an  aid  to  the  teacher  in 
many  ways.  Social  gatherings  offer  him  needful  recrea- 
tions. In  representative  society  they  extend  his  acquaint- 
ance and  influence  among  people  who  possess  strength  in 
the  community.  While  polite  society  benefits  the  teacher, 
it  may  receive  benefits  from  him  in  return.  The  teacher  is 
supposed  to  be  a  person  of  culture  and  refinement,  and  to 
possess  information  and  an  acquaintance  with  many  matters 
which  lend  grace  to  conversation  and  to  other  forms  of 
social  entertainment. 

The  Teacher  and  the  Nation  —  Thus  far  the  individual  influ- 
ence of  the  teacher  upon  the  community  in  "which  he  resides, 
has  been  considered  in  some  detail.  The  collective  influence 
of  teachers  as  a  class  upon  the  national  life  is  a  theme  full 
of  hope  for  the  Eepublic.  There  is  a  great  work  to  be  done 
in  influencing  society  at  large,  and  in  raising  the  standard 
of  American  citizenship. 

"To  all  this  national  development,"  says  Samuel  Eliot, 
"  there  have  been,  and  there  still  are,  very  serious  drawbacks. 
They  spring  to  a  great  degree  from  the  development  itself. 
Corruption  follows  hard  upon  growth  in  society,  as  in  nature, 
and  its  effects  are  as  fatal  in  one  as  in  the  other.  Wealth 
grows,  and  the  passion  for  it  grows  faster.  Labor  struggles 
not  only  with  capital,  but  with  labor ;  trade  is  tainted  with 
dishonest  practices ;  life  itself  is  lowered  by  the  readiness 
with  which  men  forsake  its  higher  callings  because  they  are 
less  lucrative  than  the  lower.  Power  increases,  and  the  lust 
for  it  increases  likewise.  Candidates  for  office  stoop  to  mean 
conditions.  Office  holders  stoop  yet  lower,  and  whether  in 
town,  city,  State,  or  national  government,  degrade  themselves 


316  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

and  their  authority.  For  some  of  our  forms  of  disgrace, 
new  words,  or  words  with,  new  meanings,  are  required,  and 
strangers  and.  children  ask.  what  is  a  ring,  or  a  lobby,  and 
sometimes  fail  to  understand  it  when  explained.  If  the 
results  of  political  corruption  were  confined  to  those  who 
indulge  in  it,  the  injury  would  be  far  less  formidable.  But 
they  spread  on  every  side,  they  infect  our  institutions,  they 
poison  the  spirit  of  our  people.  These  evils  are  not  new. 
They  were  lamented  when  the  Nation  was  born,  in  the  very 
throes  of  the  Kevolution,  while  such  as  loved  the  country 
were  pledging  to  it  their  lives,  their  fortunes,  and  their  sacred 
honor,  and  others  were  making  money  out  of  its  trials,  or 
turning  its  agonies  to  their  own  preferment.  It  is  only  that 
the  evils  are  more  apparent  than  they  used  to  be.  They 
have  a  larger  area,  a  more  numerous  following;  and  so  the 
shadows  which  they  cast  seem  to  shut  out  more  of  the  light 
that  should  be  shining.  There  is  but  one  way  to  dispel  them 
—  by  consecrating  the  Nation  to  a  higher  service,  and  giving 
ourselves  to  it,  one  and  all." 


OUTLINES  OF  READING  CIRCLE 
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OUTLINES  OF  READING   CIRCLE  WORK 


FIRST  MONTH,  pp.  5-42 

I.    DUTIES   OF   PARENTS 

1.  The  meeting  of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction 
in  1838.  2.  The  address  by  David  Perkins  Page ;  its  influ- 
ence on  American  education.  3.  A  new  factor  in  educational 
idministration.  4.  Need  of  sympathy  between  teachers 
and  parents.  5.  Causes  of  misunderstanding.  6.  How  to 
avoid  these  evils.  7.  Duties  of  parents.  8.  Underestima- 
tion of  the  teacher's  services.  9.  Inadequate  compensation 
of  teachers.  10.  Need  of  proper  environment.  11.  Public 
encouragement  of  school  celebrations.  12.  Supervision  of 
the  child's  general  reading. 

SECOND  MONTH,  pp.  45-70 

II.    DUTIES   OF  TEACHERS 

1.  High  ideals.  2.  Intercourse  with  parents.  3.  Truth 
and  frankness.  4.  Tact.  5.  The  teacher  an  adviser.  6.  The 
teacher's  relations  to  school  officers. 

III.    DUTIES   OF   SCHOOL   OFFICERS 

1.  Absolute  and  relative  duties.  2.  The  school  officer 
and  the  teacher.  3.  The  teacher's  authority.  4.  Needs  of 

319 


320  SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

the  community.  5.  Personal  responsibility.  6.  Officers 
responsible  for  teachers'  recompense.  7.  Dignity  and  com- 
mon sense.  8.  Good  tools  and  appointments. 

THIRD  MONTH,  pp.  73-120 

IV.    SCHOOL   ARCHITECTURE  i 

1.  Site  and  surroundings.  2.  Lighting  for  rooms  of  high 
ceilings.  3.  Lighting  for  rooms  of  low  ceilings.  4.  Shades 
and  blinds.  5.  The  arrangement  of  the  schoolroom.  6.  Toilet 
rooms  and  closets.  7.  Desks  and  seating.  8.  Blackboards 
and  wainscoting.  9.  Wardrobes.  10.  Doors.  11.  City 
school  grounds.  12.  An  eight-room  building  for  city  schools. 
13.  Repair  of  old  buildings. 

V.    SCHOOL  HYGIENE 

1.  Ventilation ;  a  lesson  from  Roderick  Hume,  2.  Venti- 
lation by  means  of  windows.  3.  Ventilation  by  means  of 
shafts.2  4.  What  is  a  sufficient  room  space  for  each  pupil  ? 

1  This  chapter,  on  account  of  its  great  importance,  has  been  the  sub- 
ject of  much  discussion.    It  will  be  noted  that  Mr.  Clark  assumes  that 
the  smaller  schoolhouses  of   the  country  will  be  "low-studded,"  and 
that  the  true  principles  of  school  architecture  will  not  be  applied  so 
generally  to  these  buildings  as  to  the  more  important  school  edifices  of 
cities.    Whatever  the  concession  made  in  this  chapter  to  the  conditions 
which  the  writer  finds  or  assumes,  the  teacher  should  acquaint  himself 
with  what  is  deemed  most  desirable.    There  are  very  many  school  officers 
who  will  not  prefer  the  second  best,  even  in  the  construction  of  their 
smaller  school  buildings,  but  will  give  heed  to  correct  principles  in  school 
architecture,  whether  applied  to  small  or  to  large  buildings.    A  compromise 
will  often  result  in  a  construction  which  will  neither  properly  light  nor 
sufficiently  ventilate  a  schoolroom. 

2  Commenting  upon  the  trumpet-shaped  box  or  pipe  of  a  register  (p.  112), 
a  hygienist  remarks  as  follows  : 

"  I  do  not  agree  with  the  writer,  I  would  enlarge  the  opening,  making 
it  long  and  narrow,  and  inclining  upward,  instead  of  funnel-shaped; 
because  in  the  narrow  place  the  warm  air  will  spread  out  and  come  in 
with  less  force,  while  the  funnel-shaped  opening  will  allow  the  cold  air 
to  rush  in  and  form  an  eddy  in  the  mouth  of  it,  crowding  the  warm  air 
to  the  top,  and  still  have  about  the  same  force.  In  constructing  an  inlet 
into  the  room,  I  would  carry  the  warm  air  duct  entirely  to  the  top  of  the 


OUTLINES  OF  BEADING   CIRCLE   WOPK         321 

5.  The  normal  temperature  of  the  schoolroom.1  6.  Furnace 
heating.  7.  Steam  heating.  8.  Hot  water  heating.  9.  Sani- 
tary supervision  of  the  schoolhouse.2  10.  Cleanliness  of  the 
pupils.  11.  Care  of  the  eyes.  12.  Position  at  desk ;  stand- 
vng  and  walking.  13.  The  pupil's  food  and  drink. 

FOURTH  MONTH,  pp.  123-160 

VI.    ARBOR  DAY   CELEBRATIONS 

1.  Origin  and  history  of  Arbor  Day.  2.  Choice  of  trees. 
3.  Suggestions  for  planting.  4.  Literary  exercises.  5.  In- 
door exercises.  6.  Plant  collections.  7.  Benefit  of  Arbor 
Day  celebrations. 

VII.    THE  DICTIONARY,  AND  HOW  TO  USE  IT 

1.  Ethics  of  words.  2.  Use  of  the  dictionary  in  the 
schoolroom.  3.  Webster  as  a  standard.  4.  Syllabica- 
tion. 5.  Origin  and  history  of  words.  6.  Scripture  proper 
names.  7.  Foreign  phrases.  8.  Fictitious  persons  and  places. 


room  and  Jet  the  air  out  against  the  ceiling,  so  that  the  pressure  would 
always  be  downward.  An  opening  on  the  floor  will  allow  the  foul  air  from 
the  floor  to  mingle  into  the  current  as  it  passes  upward,  and  it  will  form 
eddies  and  currents  in  the  room." 

The  same  writer  adds:  "I  think  the  author  ought  to  argue  for  all 
schoolrooms  to  have  a  fresh  supply  of  air  forced  into  them  by  some 
method  or  other.  I  think  all  school  buildings  —  whether  in  the  country 
or  in  the  city  —  ought  to  have  a  room  especially  adapted  and  well 
heated  with  registers  on  the  floor  or  stoves,  and  sufficiently  large  to 
accommodate  a  great  many  persons  at  once,  so  that  pupils  can  be 
thoroughly  warm  before  entering  the  schoolroom;  and  the  air  passing 
from  said  room  directly  out  of  doors." 

1  In  fixing  the  temperature  of  the  schoolroom  there  are  various  matters 
to  be  considered  —  such  as  the  age  of  the  pupil,  the  dampness  or  dryness 
of  the  atmosphere,  etc.     Sometimes  the  temperature  should  be  rather 
above  than  below  70". 

2  The  suggestions  relative  to  the  basement  can  "be  extended  to  the  space 
below  the  floor,  in  buildings  which  have  no  basements.     Often  this  space 
is  entirely  closed,  and  is  inaccessible  for  examination.    Means  should  be 
supplied  for  an  occasional  opening  of  this  space,  for  investigation  and  for 
ventilation. 

SCH.   INT.   &  BUT. — 21 


322  SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 

9.  Biographical  names.  10.  Gazetteer.  11.  Abbreviations 
and  contractions.  12.  Pronunciation.  13.  History  of  the 
English  language.  14.  The  choice  of.  a  dictionary. 

FIFTH  MONTH,  pp.  163-188 

VIII.    SCHOOL   LIBRARIES 

1.  The  influence  of  unwholesome  literature.  2.  The  in- 
fluence of  good  literature.  3.  Need  for  school  libraries. 
4.  Eeport  of  the  Committee  of  Ten.  5.  Choice  of  books. 
6.  Libraries  and  bookcases.  7.  Library  catalogues.  8.  A 
new  profession. 

IX.    SCHOOL   MORALS 

1.  Moral  training  in  the  schools.  2.  The  teacher's  re- 
sponsibility. 3.  The  discipline  of  the  school.  4.  Social 
duties  of  school  children.  5.  Respect  for  law. 

1  SIXTH  MONTH,  pp.  191-236 

X.    SCHOOL   ETIQUETTE 

1.  The  meaning  of  etiquette.  2.  The  importance  of  eti- 
quette. 3.  The  influence  of  example.  4.  Etiquette  not  a 
mere  system  of  forms.  5.  Facial  expression.  6.  Manner 
of  speaking.  7.  Propriety  of  speech.  8.  Forms  of  address. 
9.  Deportment  upon  the  street.  10.  The  deportment  at  the 
school.  11.  Care  for  articles  of  value.  12.  Correspond- 
ence. 13.  Deportment  at  meals.  14.  Care  of  the  person. 
15.  Washington's  Rules  of  Civility. 

XI.    SCHOOL   CELEBRATIONS   AND   OBSERVANCES 

1.  General  holidays  and  school  celebrations.  2.  Authors' 
birthdays.  3.  Presentations  of  portraits.  4.  Suggestions 
for  Longfellow's  birthday.  5.  Some  notable  birthdays. 
6.  Birthdays  of  American  statesmen.  7.  Suggestions  for 


OUTLINES  OF  HEADING   CIRCLE   WORK         323 

Washington's  birthday.  8.  Suggestions  for  Lincoln's  birth- 
day. 9.  Other  notable  birthdays.  10.  School  flags  and  flag 
days.  11.  Suggestions  for  flag  presentation  day.  12.  What 
constitutes  an  American  flag.  13.  The  significance  of  the 
colors.  14.  Material  of  the  flag.  15.  The  American  shield. 
16.  Care  of  the  flag.  17.  The  origin  and  development  of 
the  flag.  18.  Music  and  literature  relating  to  the  flag. 
19.  Appropriate  flag  days.  20.  Other  school  celebrations. 

21.  General  holidays. 

SEVENTH  MONTH,  pp.  239-264 

XII.    THE  TEACHERS'    INSTITUTE 

1.  The  function  of  the  Institute.  2.  The  first  requisite 
of  the  teacher.  3.  The  second  requisite.  4.  The  teacher's 
"  conversion."  5.  Instrumental  and  professional  knowledge. 
6.  A  knowledge  of  educational  values.  7.  The  lines  of 
study  for  teachers.  8.  The  limitations  of  the  Teachers' 
Institute.  9.  What  the  Institute  is  not.  10.  Profitable  and 
unprofitable  reviews  in  Institutes.  11.  The  more  distinct 
purpose  of  the  Institute.  12.  Professional  instruction. 
13.  School  management.  14.  Psychology  applied  to  the 
teaching.  15.  Instruction  in  the  subject  matter  of  the 
school  course.  16.  Difficulties  to  be  encountered.  17.  Aims 
of  the  Institute.  18.  Evening  Lectures.  19.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  Institute.  20.  The  influence  of  the  state  super- 
intendent. 21.  The  influence  of  the  county  superintendent. 

22.  The   members  of  the  Institute.     23.  Special  topics  of 
instruction  in  Institutes ;  an  outline  of  American  Literature. 

EIGHTH  MONTH,  pp.  267-295 

XIII.    TEACHERS'   READING  CIRCLES 

1.  The  new  profession.  2.  The  past  decade  in  education. 
3.  The  first  State  Reading  Circles.  4.  Discussion  of  Read- 


324  SCHOOL  INTEEESTS  AND  DUTIES 

ing  Circle  work.  5.  State  organizations  necessary.  6.  The 
maintenance  of  the  Beading  Circles.  7.  American  peda- 
gogical literature.  8.  The  period  of  probation.  9.  The 
period  of  assured  permanency.  10.  The  true  origin  of  the 
Reading  Circles.  11.  The  influence  of  the  school  officer. 

12.  The  present  duty.    13.  later  tendencies.    14.  The  value 
of  Eeading  Circle  work.    15.  Local  meetings.    16.  The  pres- 
ent trend  of  Reading  Circle  work.     17.  Notes  on  Teachers' 
Eeading  Circles. 

XIV.    PUPILS'    BEADING  CIRCLES 

1.  Origin  and  management.  2.  Indiana  Circle.  3.  Courses 
and  management  of  Illinois  Circle.  4.  Plan  of  Iowa  Circle. 
5.  Membership  cards  and  diplomas.  6.  High  School 
division.  7.  Michigan  Circle.  8.  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
Circles.  9.  Oklahoma  Circle.  10.  Representative  Courses. 

NINTH   MONTH,  pp.   299-316 

XV.    THE   TEACHER'S   RELATION  TO   PUBLIC   OPINION 

1.  An  ideal  teacher.  2.  The  teacher  and  the  State.  3.  The 
teacher's  far-reaching  personal  influence.  4.  Guiding  cen- 
ters, or  authorities,  in  society.  5.  The  basis  of  authority 
in  society.  6.  Real  leaders  not  necessarily  conspicuous. 
7.  The  interaction  of  influence.  8.  Practical  results  more 
important  than  theory.  9.  Public  opinion  relating  to  the 
school.  10.  The  teacher  as  a  man  of  business.  11.  The 
teacher  as  a  patriot.  12.  The  teacher  as  a  philanthropist. 

13.  The  teacher  in  society.    14.  The  teacher  and  the  Nation. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Abbott's  Histories,  Value  of,  174,  175. 
Abbreviations  in  Webster,  157,  158. 
Adams,  Charles  Francis,  address  to 

teachers,  167,  1(58. 
\dams,  John  Quincy,  Birthday  of, 


228;  Character  of,  262. 
Adams,  Samuel,  noted  orator,  261. 
Addison,  J.,  Extracts  from,  135,  137. 
Address,  Forms  of,  196,  197. 
Aims  of  Teacher's  Institute,  255,  256. 
Alcott,  Louisa  M.,  Birthday  of,  256. 
Aldrich,  T.  B.,  Extract  from,  134. 


Attendance,  Importance  of  regular, 

20-22. 
Authority  of  school  affairs,  Limits 

of,  60,  61. 
Authority  of  Teachers,  59-63 ;  requi- 


site for  good  work,  59 ;  teacher  in 
loco  parentis,  60 ;  not  to  be  ques- 
tioned, 60 ;  not  delegated  by  school 
boards,  60,  61 ;  inherent  rights,  60 ; 
special  functions  of  teacher,  61, 
62;  official  dictation  unwise,  62, 
63 ;  teacher  a  mere  operative,  63. 

Allen,  Dr.  Jerome,  on  Reading  Circle    Authors'  birthday  celebrations,  208. 
work,  271.  272.  Authors'  Grove,  124. 

Alphabetical  catalogues,  178,  179.         Authors  of  prose,  fiction,  etc.,  263, 

American  authors,  Birthdays  of,  212.       264. 

American  flag,  origin,  size,  colors, 
etc.,  230-235.  Bacon,  Leonard,  on  juvenile  litera- 

American  Forestry  Congress,  Arbor       ture,  167. 
Day  appointed  by,  124.  Bain,  on  education  and  psychology, 

American  Institute  of  Instruction,  5.       243. 

American  literature,  Topical   exer-    Ball,   Sir    Robert    S.,  Astronomical 
cise  on,  260-264.  lecture  by,  301,  302. 

American  pedagogical  literature,  275.    Bancroft,  George,  Birthday  of,  213; 

American  shield,  231.  Works  of,  263. 

American  statesmen,  Birthdays  of,    Bardeen's  Roderick  Hume,  105. 


Bay  Psalm  Book,  261. 

Beard,  I.  N.,  on  Pupils'  Reading 
Circles,  290. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  lecture  on 
The  Xew  Profession,  267. 

Benefits  of  Arbor  Day  celebrations, 
146. 

Bible,  Extracts  from,  131,  132;  Pro- 
nunciation of  proper  names  in,  155. 


213. 

Anglo-Saxon  words,  154. 

Appropriate  Flag  Days,  234. 

Arbor  Day,  37-39,  235. 

Arbor  Day  celebrations,  123,  146: 
originated  by  Nebraska,  123; 
adopted  by  other  states,  123 ;  bene- 
fits of,  123;  time  of  observance, 

123,  124;  Authors'  Grove  founded.  UUuv,ia,i.iuu  Vi  p^pci.  ua 
124;  aid  of  B.  G.  Northrop.  124:  Biographical  names,  157. 
legally  appointed,  124;  Good  effects  Birthdavs,  Authors',  208-227;  Lin- 
coln's; 214-227 ;  Longfellow's,  209- 
212;  of  American  statesmen,  213, 
,  _„ .  -„  228 ;  Washington's,  213,  214. 

selections,  130-140 ;    indoor  exer-   Blackboards,  86,  98. 
cises,  140 ;  plant  collections,  140- !  Blinds,  Advantages  and   disadvan- 
14<i ;  Benefits  of,  146.  tages  of,  79,  80. 

Architecture,  School,  see  School  AT-   Board   of   Trustees,  Establishment 
chitecture,  73-104. 

Aristotle,  ancient  teacher,  58. 

Arrangement  of  schools,  82-104. 

Articles  of  value,  Care  for,  198,  199. 

Atmospheric  poisons,  Children's  sus- 
ceptibility to,  106,  107. 


of,  125;  choice  of  trees,  125,  126; 
planting  trees,  126-129;  literary 
exercises,  129,  130;  appropriate 


of,  55,  56. 
Books,  abused  by  school  children, 

198;    Choice    of,    174-177;     Gail 

Hamilton  on  choice  of,  176. 
Books  and  Reading  for  the  Young, 

by  Dr.  Smart,  169. 


327 


328 


SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 


Boone,  Dr.  R.  G.,  Education  in  the 
United  States,  275;  on  Pupils' 
Reading  Circles,  289;  on  Teachers' 
Institutes,  257  ;  on  Teachers'  Read- 
ing Circles,  284. 

Botany,  Advantages  of,  146 

Brooks,  C.  T.,  Extract  from,  130. 

Brougham,  Lord,  Saying  of,  300. 

Bryant,  William  C.,  Birthday  of, 
213;  Extracts  from,  132,  137  ; 
Study  of,  262. 

Bunker  Hill,  American  flag  at,  231. 

Byron,  Lord,  Extract  from,  134. 

Calhoun,  John  C.,  Character  of,  262. 

Canfield,  J.  H.,  on  Teachers'  Read- 
ing Circles,  286. 

Card  catalogues,  179. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  Familiarity  with, 
33  ;  on  books,  40. 

Ceiling,  Height  of,  97. 

Celebrations,  Arbor  Day,  123-146; 
birthdays,  208-229;  Flag  Days,  229- 
235 ;  general  holidays,  235,  236. 

Celebrations  and  observances,  School, 
207-236. 

Chartered  schools  of  England,  58. 

Choice  of  trees  for  Arbor  Day,  125. 

Circulars  of  Information,  issued  at 
Washington,  171. 

Civility,  Washington's  rules  of,  202- 
206. 

Clark,  T.  M.,  on  air  shafts,  108-110 ; 
on  furnace  heat,  111-114 ;  on  school 
architecture,  100,  101 ;  on  ventila- 
tion, 107. 

Class  and  lecture  instruction,  Rela- 
tive advantages  of,  251,  252. 

Classification  in  schools,  14,  20,  21. 

Classified  catalogues,  178. 

Clay,  Henry,  Birthday  of,  228 ;  Char- 
acter of,  262. 

Cleanliness  of  school  buildings,  38, 
117,  118;  Personal,  201. 

Closets,  Arrangement  of,  etc.,  88-92. 

Commencement  Day,  235  ;  School 
officers'  duties  at,  69 ;  Value  of,  69. 

Commission  of  New  England  Col- 
leges, 173. 

Committee  of  Ten,  Report  of,  172- 
174. 

Community,  Needs  of,  63-65. 

Compensation  of  teachers,  Inade- 
quate, 28-34. 

Conquest  of  Mexico,  Conquest  of 
Peru,  Prescott's,  263. 

Consonants,  Doubling  of  final,  151. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
Composition  on,  261. 

Contractions  in  Webster,  157,  158. 


Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Edu- 
cation, Payne's,  256. 

Conversion,  Teacher's,  241,  242. 

Cooper,  James  F.,  AVorks  of,  263. 

Cooperation,  between  teachers  and 
parents,  17,  18,  27,  28;  Doctrine 
of,  8 ;  on  part  of  school  officers,  64. 

Cornell  Agricultural  Station,  Ex- 
periments at,  117. 

Corporal  punishment,  almost  sus- 
pended, 187. 

Correspondence,  199. 

Cotton  Mather's  Witchcraft,  261. 

County  Association  meetings,  66. 

County  Superintendent,  influence  on 
Teachers'  Institute,  258, 259 ;  medi- 
um between  teacher  and  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Instruction,  274. 

Cross  sections  of  wood,  144. 

Culture,  Importance  of  social,  191, 
192;  Teacher's,  273. 

Currier,  Dr.  C.  Gilman,  on  School- 
room Heating,  116,  117 ;  Practical 
Hygiene,  106. 

Cyclopedia,  a  dictionary  on  a  large 
scale,  160. 

Days  of  Bruce,  in  connection  with 
history,  169. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  Com- 
position on,  261. 

Deportment,  on  the  street  and  at 
school,  197, 198 ;  at  meals,  200,  201. 

Desks,  Arrangement  of,  95-97 ;  Right 
position  at,  119. 

Development  of  State  Teachers' 
Reading  Circles,  269-271 ;  of  Teach- 
ers' Institute,  257,  258. 

Dewy,  on  teachers  in  society,  313. 

Diacritical  marks,  158. 

Dickens'  Dictionary,  160;  Hard 
Times,  177. 

Dictionary,  Century,  150 ;  Choice  of, 
159;  Dickens',  160;  of  fiction,  156, 
157 ;  Webster's  International,  153 ; 
Webster's  Pictorial,  160;  Webster's 
Unabridged,  155 ;  Worcester's,  2(>4. 

Dictionary  and  how  to  use  it,  147-160 ; 
ethics  of  words,  147-149 ;  value  of 
English  literature,  148 ;  sources  of 
English  language,  148  and  note; 
synonyms,  148;  misuse  of  words, 
148,  149;  in  schoolroom,  149;  right 
use  of  dictionary,  150 ;  Webster  as 
standard,  150-152;  various  mean- 
ings of  words,  152;  syllabication, 
152,  153;  origin  and  history  of 
words,  153-155 ;  folk-lore,  153, 154 ; 
words  derived  from  Anglo-Saxon 
and  Norman  French,  154;  hybrid 


INDEX 


329 


words,  154,  155;  Scripture  proper 
names,  155;  foreign  phrases,  155, 
156;  names  of  fiction,  156,  157; 
biographical  names,  157;  gazet- 
teer, 157;  abbreviations  and  con- 
tractions, 157,  158;  pronunciation, 
158,  159 ;  history  of  language,  159 ; 
illustrations,  159;  choice  of  dic- 
tionary, 159,  160. 

Difficulties  of  school  officers,  65. 

Drake,  J.  R.,  on  American  flag,  233. 

Drinking,  Proprieties  of,  200. 

Duudas,  Henry,  Speech  of,  155. 

Duties  of  parents,  11-42;  attending 
school  celebrations,  36-39;  clean- 
liness of  children,  19,  20;  coop- 
eration, 17,  18;  dangers  of  rash 
judgment,  22-24;  duty  of  sympa- 
thy, 25,  2(5,  27;  environment  of 
schools,  35, 36 ;  libraries  in  schools, 
42 ;  regular  attendance  of  children, 
20, 22  ;  respect  for  school  laws,  185 ; 
responsibility  for  teacher's  recom- 
pense, 34;  supervision  of  child's 
reading,  39-42;  supplying  school 
materials,  19 ;  visiting  school,  19 ; 
willingness  to  hear  truth,  18. 

Duties  of  school  officers,  55-70 ;  ab- 
solute duties,  55;  at  commence- 
ments, 69;  avoidance  of  petty 
economy,  70 ;  caution  in  selecting 
teachers,  64;  considering  needs  of 
community,  64;  cooperation  with 
teachers  and  parents,  64;  direction 
of  Teachers'  Institutes,  258;  en- 
couragement of  Reading  Circles, 
278 ;  necessity  of  firmness,  64 ;  rela- 
tion to  teacher,  56,  57;  responsi- 
bility for  teacher's  salary,  66,  67 ; 
supplying  good  tools,  69,  70. 

Duties  of  teachers,  1(>,  45-o4 :  as 
adviser,  50,  51 ;  as  defined  in  state 
Jaws,  58;  definition  of  word,  48, 
note ;  duties  towards  parents,  46- 
48;  duty  of  frankness,  18,  47, 
48;  high  ideals,  45;  in  mediaeval 
schools,  58;  intercourse  with  par- 
ents, 45-47;  mistakes  in  innova- 
tions, 50;  need  of  tact,  48-50; 
relations  to  school  officers,  51-54. 

E,  Dropping  of  final,  151. 

E  Pluribus  Unum,  motto  of  United 

States,  231. 

Eating,  Proprieties  of,  200. 
Economy  in  schools,  Petty,  70. 
Eden  Park,  Arbor  Day  celebrations 

in,  124. 
Education    in    the    United    States, 

Boone's,*275. 


Education,  Past  decade  in,  269 :  Prog- 
ress in,  13,  14. 

Edioards  on  the  Will,  261. 

Electric  fans  in  schools,  111. 

Elimination  of  silent  letters,  151, 
note. 

Eliot,  George,  Characters  of,  176. 

Eliot,  Samuel,  on  the  teacher  and 
the  nation,  315,  316. 

Emerson,  Ralph  W.,  Birthday  of, 
212;  Extract  from,  138;  Knowl- 
edge of,  33;  Study  of,  264;  the 
thinker  among  practical  men,  314. 

English  Language,  History  of,  159; 
Importance  of  correct  use  of,  147, 
148;  Sources  of,  148  and  note. 

English  Literature,  Value  of,  148. 

Entrances  in  school  buildings,  81, 85. 

Environment,  Advice  of  patrons  in 
regard  to,  65  ;  effect  on  character, 
35 ;  Importance  of,  34-36. 

Esterbrook,  Joseph,  on  Teachers' 
Reading  Circles,  286. 

Ethics  of  words,  147-149. 

Etiquette,  School,  see  School  Eti- 
quette, 191-206. 

Etymology  of  words,  153-155. 

Evening  lectures  of  Teachers'  Insti- 
tute, 256. 

Excellence,  False  standard  of,  13, 14. 

Expression,  Facial,  193, 194. 

Eyesight,  affected  by  school  lighting, 
74,  75. 

Fables,  177. 

Facial  expression,  193, 194. 

Fairchild,  George  T.,  on  Teachers' 
Reading  Circles,  287. 

Fairy  stories,  177. 

Federalist,  The,  Composition  on,  261. 

Fenelon's  Telemaque,  299  note. 
'  Fiction,  Names  of,  156, 157. 

Flag  Days,  presentation  exercises, 

literature,  etc.,  228-235. 
I  Flower  presses,  142. 
!  Flues  for  ventilating,  116. 

Folk-lore  in  etymology,  153, 154, 156. 
I  Food,  proper,  120. 
'  Forced  ventilation,  108, 109. 
|  Foreign  phrases,  155,  156. 
j  Forms  of  address,  196,  197. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  Birthday  of, 
228;  Writings  of,  261,  262. 

Frankness  in  school  matters,  46,  47. 

Fresh  air,  Lowest  necessary  quan- 
tity of,  106. 

Furnace,  Position  of,  103,  112. 

Gail  Hamilton,  on  choice  of  books, 
176;  Skirmishes  and  Sketches,  163. 


330 


SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 


Gannon,  John,  on  Teachers'  Reading 
Circles,  288. 

Garfield,  James  A.,  Birthday  of,  228. 

Gastman,  E.  A.,  on  Teachers'  Read- 
ing Circles,  287. 

Gazetteer,  in  dictionary,  157. 

Geographical  names,  157. 

Geography,  Suggestions  for  instruc- 
tion in,  249. 

George  Eliot,  Characters  of,  176. 

Gilpatrick,  S.  C.,  on  Teachers'  Read- 
ing Circles,  288. 

Gow,  Morals  and  Manners,  202 ;  on 
facial  expression,  politeness,  etc., 
193, 194,  197, 198. 

"  Gradgrind  system"  of  education, 
177. 

Grading  in  Teachers'  Institutes,  253. 

Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  Birthday  of,  228; 
Teachers  of,  300. 

Great  Stone  Face,  Hawthorne's,  40. 

Hadley,  Hiram,  on  Teachers'  Read- 
ing Circles,  285. 
Halls  in  city  schools,  102. 
Hamilton,  A.,  Birthday  of,  228. 
Hamilton,  Gail,  163,  176. 
Hammond,  J.  H.,  on  truth,  303. 
Harris,  Dr.,  on  moral  training,  184; 

on  respect  for  law,  186, 187. 
Hawthorne,   N.,  Birthday    of,   213; 

Knowledge  of,  33 ;  Works  of,  263. 
Health,  Teacher's  responsibility  for 

pupil's,  120. 

Heating  of  schools,  105-117. 
Hemans,  Felicia,  Extract  from,  137. 
Henry,  Patrick,  noted  orator,  261. 
Historians,  American,  263. 
History  of  America,  Bancroft's,  263. 
History  of  the  English  language,  159. 
History  of  Virginia,  Smith's,  260. 
Hobbs,  B.  C.,  on  education,  301. 
Holidays,  General,  207,  235,  236. 
Holmes,  Oliver  W.,  Birthday  of,  213 ; 

poem  on  dress,  201,  Study  of,  262. 
Hot-water  heating,  115, 116. 
Hough,  F.  B.,  Extract  from,  135. 
House  of  Seven  Gables,  Hawthorne's, 

263. 

Humboldt,  A.  von,  Extract  from,  136. 
Hybrid  words,  154, 155. 
Hygiene,  School,  see  School  Hygiene, 

105-120. 

Ideal  Institute  course,  253. 
Ideal  teacher,  299,  300. 
Ideals  of  teacher,  45. 
Iliad,  Character  of  Stentor  in,  153. 
Illinois  Pupils'  Reading  Circle,  290 ; 
representative  courses,  293. 


Illustrations  in  dictionary,  159. 

Inadequate  compensation  of  teachers, 
28-34;  objections  to  pensioning, 
29;  Evils  resulting  from,  29,  30; 
Alleged  reasons  for,  29,  30 ;  teach- 
er's necessities,  31-34. 

Independence  Day,  207. 

Indiana  State  Teachers'  Reading  Cir- 
cle, 270 ;  Success  of,  276. 

Indirect  steam  heating,  115,  116. 

Inherent  rights  of  teacher,  60. 

Innovations,  Objections  to,  50. 

Instrumental  Knowledge,  Teacher's, 
242-244. 

International  Dictionary,  153. 

Introduction,  5-8. 

Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Society, 
Extracts  from,  303,  304. 

Iowa  Pupils'  Reading  Circle,  290; 
representative  courses,  293,  294. 

Irving,  W.,  Birthday  of,  212;  Extract 
from,  136;  Work  of,  263. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  Birthday  of,  228 ; 

Teachers  of,  300. 
Janitor,  Selection  of,  118. 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  Birthday  of,  228 ; 

Teachers  of,  300. 

John  of  Barneveld,  Motley's,  263. 
Jonson,  Ben,  Extract  from,  135. 

Kansas,  First  celebration  of  Arbor 
Day  in,  123 ;  Pupils'  Reading  Cir- 
cle, 291. 

Key,  Francis  S.,  Star  Spangled 
Banner  by,  232,  233. 

Kyrle,  John,  The  Man  of  Ross,  312, 
313. 

Language,  History  of  English,  159; 
Importance  of  using  correct,  194. 

Larcom,  Lucy,  Extracts  from,  37, 
133,  139, 140. 

Lavatories  in  schools,  87,  88. 

Lecture  and  class  instruction,  Rela- 
tive advantages  of,  251,  252. 

Letters,  Elimination  of  silent,  151 
note. 

Letter-writing,  199. 

Lexicographers,  German,  151,  152; 
American,  150, 151,  264. 

Libraries,  School,  163-180 ;  and  book- 
cases, 177-180. 

Library  catalogues,  178,  179;  Day, 
235. 

Lighting  in  schools,  74-82;  by  oppo- 
site windows,  77;  North  and 
south,  77,  78;  East  and  west,  78, 
79;  shutters,  shades,  etc.,  80; 
south  entrances,  81,  82.  * 


INDEX 


331 


Limitations  of  school-board's  author- 
ity, 60;  of  Teachers'  Institute,  246. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  Extracts  from 
speeches  of,  218-224 ;  Suggestions 
for  birthday  of,  214-227 :  Teachers 
of,  300;  Tom  Taylor's  tribute  to, 
2-J.-.-227. 

Lincoln  leaflets,  214-224. 

.Lines  of  study  for  teachers,  245,  246. 

Literary  exercises    for  Arbor  Day,  I 
129, 130. 

Literature,  Adams,  C.  F.,  on,  167;! 
American  pedagogical,  275;  appeal 
for  reform,  167;  Good,  169,  170: 
in  Schools,  Report  of  Committee  of 
Ten,  172-174;  insufficient  instruc- 
tion in  reading,  168 ;  Juvenile,  163- 
180;  Street,  164,  165;  Sumner, 
W.  G.,  on,  165-167;  relating  to 
American  flag,  232-234;  Sunday 
school,  163,  164;  Topical  exercise 
on,  260-264;  Unwholesome,  163-168. 

Local  meetings  for  Reading  Circles, 
280,  281 

Locke  Amsden,  Extract  from,  105. 

Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  Extracts  from, 
130,  131,  136,  209-212;    Study  of, 
Suggestions  for  birthday  of, 
209-212 ;  Understanding  of,  33. 

Lowell,  James  R.,  Birthday  of ,  212 ; 
Extract  from,  132;  Study  of,  262. 

Lytton,  Lord,  Extract  from,  131. 

Macaulay,  on  practical  results,  305. 

Madison,  James,  Birthday  of,  228. 

Madison  Papers,  Composition  on, 
261. 

Mann,  Horace,  on  power  of  school- 
officers,  61  note ;  pioneer  of  educa- 
tion, 6;  publishes  Mr.  Page's  ad- 
dress, 6,  7. 

Manuals  of  institute  work,  248,  258.    j 

Marble,  Superintendent,  on  power  of 
school-officers,  60  note ;  on  relation 
between  teachers  and  school-offi- 
cers, 56-59. 

Marble  Faun,  Hawthorne's,  263. 

Massachusetts,  law  of  1826,  56 ;  law 
relating  to  teachers,  58,  59. 

Massey,  Gerald,  Extract  from,  135. 

McRae,    Emma    M.,    on     Teachers'  j 
Reading  Circles,  283,  284. 

Mechanical  virtues,  184,  185. 

Medals,  Dangers  of,  187, 188. 

Mediaeval  schools,  58. 

Melville,  Lord,  Speech  of,  155. 

Mentor,  Fe'nelon's  character  of,  299 
and  note. 

Metcalf ,  Prof.  Robert  C.,  on  public 
school  reading,  169. 


Method,  Importance  of  good,  241; 
relation  to  school  government .  L'49, 
250 ;  teacher's  instrumental  knowl- 
edge, 243. 

Michigan  Pupils'  Reading  Circle, 
291;  representative  courses,  292. 

Microscopic  investigation,  Plants 
for,  145. 

Miller,  Dan,  on  Pupils'  Reading  Cir- 
cles, 290. 

Miller,  Joaquin,  Extract  from,  133. 

Milton,  John,  Extract  from,  134; 
Familiarity  with,  33;  on  educa- 
tion, 301. 

Misunderstanding  between  teachers 
and  parents,  13-16. 

Misuse  of  words,  148,  149. 

Moffatt,  Rebecca  D.,  on  Teachers' 
Reading  Circle,  277. 

Monroe,  James,  Birthday  of,  228. 

Moral  culture,  Massachusetts  law  in 
regard  to,  58,  59. 

Moral  training  in  schools,  181-183.      • 

Morality  defined,  183. 

Morals  and  Manners,  Gow's,  202. 

Morals,  School,  see  School  Morals, 
181-188. 

Motley,  John  L.,  Birthday  of,  212; 
Works  of,  263. 

Motto  of  United  States,  231. 

Muloch,  Miss,  Characters  of,  176. 

Music  relating  to  American  flag, 
232-234. 

Mutual  Duties  of  Parents  and  Teach- 
ers, Page's,  6. 

Names,  Biographical,  157 ;  Geograph- 
ical, 157;  of  fiction,  156, 157. 

Nation,  The  teacher  and  the,  315, 
316. 

National  Bureau  of  Education,  8. 

National  Educational  Association, 
5,66. 

National  songs  and  poems,  233. 

Neatness,  in  the  school,  38,  117,  118; 
Persona],  201. 

Nebraska,  Arbor  Day  originated  in, 
123;  Pupils'  Reading  Circle,  291. 

Needs  of  community,  Consideration 
of,  63-65. 

New  Profession,  The,  by  H.  W. 
Beecher,  267. 

Normal  school,  Difference  between 
institute  and,  239,  240;  Function 
of,  239. 

Normal  temperature  of  room,  111. 

Norman  conquest,  its  effect  on  Eng- 
lish language,  148. 

Norman  French,  Words  derived 
from,  154. 


332 


SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 


Northrop,  B.  G.,  on  landscape  gar- 
dening, 124. 

Notes  on  Teachers'  Reading  Circles, 
283-288. 

Official  dictation,  Dangers  of,  62,  63. 
Oklahoma   Pupils'  Reading   Circle. 

291,  292. 

Opening  exercises,  181, 182. 
Origin  of  Arbor  Day,   123-125;    of 

Pupils'  Reading  Circles,  289;    of 

Teachers'  Reading  Circles,  277. 
Oswald,  Felix  L.,  Extract  from,  133. 
Otis,  James,  noted  orator,  261. 
Ounce,  abbreviation  of,  158. 
Outlines  of  Reading   Circle  Work, 

319-324. 

Page,  David  Perkins,  pioneer  in 
education,  6,  11;  on  duties  of 
parents,  11-42;  on  duties  of  teach- 
ers, 45-54;  on  Teachers'  Associa- 
tions, 209. 

Parents,  Advantages  of  cooperation 
of,  27,  28;  Authority  of,  57,  58; 
Critical  dictation  of,  14, 15;  Duties 
of,  11-42;  Misunderstanding  be- 
tween teachers  and,  13-16;  Obliga- 
tions towards  teachers,  26,  27; 
Suspicious  spirit  of,  14 ;  Sympathy 
with  teachers,  11-13,  25,  26. 

Parker,  Col.  Francis  W.,  on  Teach- 
ers' Reading  Circles,  287;  on 
teaching,  268. 

Payne,  William  H.,  Contributions 
to  Science  of  Education,  239-264; 
on  Teachers'  Institutes,  256;  on 
Teachers'  Reading  Circles,  284, 285. 

Peaslee,  John  B.,  founder  of  Authors' 
Grove,  124. 

Pension  system,  Objections  to,  29. 

Personal  influence,  304,  305. 

Pilot,  The,  Cooper's,  263. 

Plant  collections  in  schools,  140-146. 

Plant  photography,  143. 

Planting  trees,  Suggestions  for,  126- 
129. 

Plants  for  microscopic  investigation, 
145. 

Platform,  Teacher's,  95-97. 

Plato,  ancient  teacher,  58. 

Playgrounds,  100,  101. 

Politeness,  not  a  matter  of  forms, 
193;  expressed  by  speech,  194,  195. 

Political  phase  in  American  litera- 
ture, 261. 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  261. 

Pope,  Alexander,  Extract  from,  131. 

Porter,  N.,  on  juvenile  literature, 
167. 


Practical  Hygiene,  Currier's,  106. 

Practical  results,  Importance  of. 
305-307. 

Prescott,  William  H.,  Birthday  of, 
212 ;  Works  of,  263. 

Presentation  of  portraits,  208,  209. 

Primary  teachers,  30. 

Primers,  List  of,  175,  176. 

Principal,  Office  of,  103 ;  Selection  of 
teachers  by,  64 ;  Selection  of  text- 
books by,  64,  65. 

Privies,  School,  88-92. 

Prizes,  Dangers  of,  187,  188. 

Professional  culture  for  teachers, 
271,  272. 

Professional  knowledge,  Teacher's, 
242-244. 

Professional  training,  29-32. 

Professor,  abuse  of  title,  196,  197. 

Pronunciation  of  words,  158,  159. 

Psalm  of  Life,  Longfellow's,  39. 

Psychology  applied  to  teaching,  243, 

Public  money  for  school  libraries, 
41. 

Public  opinion,  relating  to  school, 
307,  308;  Teacher's  relation  to, 
299-316. 

Punctuality,  Importance  of,  22;  in 
school,  184 ;  result  of  moral  train- 
ing, 184,  185. 

Pupils'  Reading  Circles,  289-295; 
Boone,  R.  G.,  on,  289:  Illinois, 
290;  Indiana,  170,289;  Iowa,  290; 
Kansas,  291 ;  Membership  of,  289 ; 
Michigan,  291;  Nebraska,  291; 
Oklahoma,  291;  Organization  of, 
40,  41;  Origin  of,  289;  Represen- 
tative courses  in,  292-295;  South 
Dakota,  291 ;  Teacher's  encourage- 
ment of,  51. 

Quibbling,  Dangers  of,  247,  248. 

Rank  of  teacher,  268. 

Reading,  influence  on  child's  mind, 
40,  41;  Supervision  of  child's, 
39-42.  See  also  Literature. 

Reading  Circles,  Allen  (Dr.  Jerome) 
on,  271,  272;  discussion  of  work, 
271 ;  established  in  various  states, 
270,  271;  in  educational  advance- 
ment, 269;  Indiana  State  Teach- 
ers', 269,  270;  local  meetings,  280, 
281;  Maintenance  of,  275;  notes 
on  Teachers',  283-288;  officially 
recognized,  278 ;  outlines  of  work, 
319-324 ;  permanent  institutions, 
276,  277;  present  trend  of  work, 
281-283;  Pupils',  40,  41,  51,  170, 


INDEX 


333 


289-295  ;  representative  courses, 
292-295  ;  school-officer's  influence, 
278;  Skinner  (H.  M.)  on  organ- 
ization, 274,  275;  Teachers',  33, 
49,  1267-288;  Teachers'  attitude 
towards,  278.  279;  True  origin  of, 
277:  value  of  work,  279,  280;  work 
exhibited,  271. 

Recitation  rooms,  Arrangement  of, 
98,  99. 

Reform,  Appeal  for,  167. 

Registers,  Position  of,  111-114. 

Religious  training,  distinguished 
from  moral,  182. 

Repair,  Necessity  for  constant,  104. 

Report  of  Committee  of  Ten,  172-174. 

Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  Motley's, 
263.' 

Robinson  Crusoe,  in  connection  with 


geography,  169. 
oderick  Hu 


Roderick  Hume,  Extract  from,  105. 
Rule  for  final  consonants,  151. 
Ruskin,  John,  Extract    from,   133; 
Understanding  of,  33. 

Salary,  Teachers',  34,  66,  67. 

Sashes,  arrangements  for  ventila- 
tion, 107,  108  :  Shape  and  size  of,  79. 

Scholarship,  Teachers',  240,  241. 

School  Architecture,  70,  73-104;  site 
and  surroundings,  73,  74;  lighting, 
74-82  :  arrangement  of  school- 
house,  82-100  ;  need  of  a  competent 
critic,  83,  84;  main  schoolroom, 

84,  85  ;  arrangement  of  entrances, 

85,  86;  rooms  in  small  and  large 
buildings,  86;   vestibules,  86,  87; 
wardrobes,  washing  conveniences, 
etc.,  87,  88  ;  arrangement  of  closets, 
88-92  ;  moral  dangers  of  improper 
arrangement,  88,  89  ;  best  position, 
89  ;    importance    of    cleanliness, 
privacy,  etc.,  90;  relative  advan- 
tages of  water  and  earth  closets 
and    privies,   90,   91  ;    details   of 
arrangement,  urinals,  screens,  etc., 
91,  92  ;   position  of  woodshed,  92,  | 
93;  position  of  stove,  etc.,  93,  94, 
98;  additional  rooms,  94;  seating 
capacity,  94;  arrangement  of  desks 
and  platforms,   95-97;    height  of 
ceiling,    window    sills,    etc.,    97; 
arrangement  of  blackboards,  98; 
size  and  arrangement  of  recitation 
rooms,  etc.,  98,  99;    necessity  of 
teacher's    room,    98;    details    of 
general  planning,  99,  100;  height 
of  stairs,  100  ;  arrangement  in  city 
schools,  100-104;  school  grounds, 
100,  101;    halls,   wardrobes,   and 


teachers'  rooms,  102;  toilet  ar- 
rangements, 102 ;  principal's  office, 
103;  position  of  furnace,  103;  de- 
tails of  arrangement,  103,  104  ; 
evils  in  old  schoolhouses,  104 ; 
necessity  of  constant  repair,  104. 

School  boards,  Educational  affairs 
administered  by,  7,  8  ;  Limit  of 
authority  of,  60,  61 ;  Members  of, 
52,  53,  54;  relation  to  authority 
of  teachers,  59-133. 

School  celebrations  and  observances, 
36^2,  207-236 ;  American  flag  and 
shield,  230-232 ;  Arbor,  Commence- 
ment, and  Library  Days,  235; 
authors'  birthdays,"  208,  209 ;  En- 
couragement of,  36,  37 ;  Flag  Pres- 
entation Day,  229;  general  holi- 
days, 207,  235,  236;  Good  effects 
of,  38,  39;  Lincoln's  birthday, 
214-227;  lists  of  notable  birth- 
days, 212,  213,  228 ;  music  and  lit- 
erature relating  to  flag,  232-234; 
school  flags  and  Flag  Days,  228, 
229,  234,  235;  suggestions  for 
Longfellow's  birthday,  209-212 ; 
Washington's  birthday,  213,  214. 

School  committees,  Subdivision  of,  65. 

School  etiquette,  191-206;  meaning 
of  the  word,  191 ;  Importance  of, 
191,  192;  influence  of  example, 
192  ;  not  a  mere  system  of  forms, 
193;  facial  expression,  193,  194; 
manner  of  speaking,  194,  195; 
forms  of  address,  196,  197 ;  deport- 
ment in  school,  on  the  street,  and 
at  meals,  197-201 ;  care  for  articles 
of  value,  198, 199 ;  correspondence, 
199;  care  of  the  person,  201,  202; 
Gow's  Morals  and  Manners,  202; 
"Washington's  Rules  of  Civility, 
202-20.0 

School  flags  and  Flag  Days,  228,  229. 

School  hygiene,  105-120;  ventilation 
and  heating,  105-117 ;  lowest  stan- 
dard amount  of  fresh  air,  106 ; 
atmospheric  poisons,  106,  107 ;  fre- 
quent ventilation,  107;  sash  ar- 
rangements for  ventilation,  107, 
108;  dangers  of  "forced  ventila- 
tion," 108,  109;  provisions  for  es- 
cape of  foul  air,  110;  avoiding 
friction,  110 ;  difficulties  in  crowded 
schoolrooms,  111;  electric  fans, 
111 ;  normal  temperature  of  room, 
111 ;  position  of  furnace  and  regis- 
ters, 111-114;  checks  to  force  of 
wind,  113,  114;  steam  heating, 
114,  115;  hot-water  heating,  115, 
116;  relative  advantages  of  vari- 


334 


SCHOOL   INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 


ous  heating  methods,  116,  117; 
exhaust  flues  for  ventilating,  116 ; 
cleanliness,  117,  118;  selection 
of  janitor,  118;  care  of  eyes  — 
good  type,  119;  right  position  at 
desk,  119;  food  and  water,  120; 
teacher's  responsibility  for  pupil's 
health,  120. 

School  laws  of  the  state,  58. 

School  libraries,  41,  42,  163-180  ; 
Books  suitable  for,  42;  catalogues, 
178,  179;  choice  of  books,  174-177; 
Circulars  of  Information,  171 ;  in- 
fluence of  good  literature,  168-170 ; 
Need  for,  170-172;  Influence  of 
teacher  in  procuring,  180 ;  influence 
of  unwholesome  literature,  163-168 ; 
libraries  and  bookcases,  177-180; 
Means  of  procuring,  170, 171 ;  Pub- 
lic money  lor,  41 ;  Report  of  Com- 
mittee of  Ten,  172;  schools  for 
training  librarians,  180. 

School  life,  Importance  of  culture  in, 
192. 

School  management  and  organiza- 
tion, 249,  250. 

School  Management,  by  Dr.  E.  E. 
White,  59. 

School  Morals,  181-188  ;  moral  train- 
ing in  schools,  181-183;  difference 
between  moral  and  religious  train- 
ing, 181 ;  opening  exercises,  182 ; 
constant  training  in  schoolroom, 
182,  183;  influence  of  beautiful 
stories,  etc.,  182;  what  morality 
is,  183;  teacher's  responsibility, 
183;  discipline  of  school,  183-185  ; 
punctuality,  etc.,  184,  185  ;  par- 
ents' assistance,  185 ;  social  duties 
of  school  children,  185, 186 ;  teach- 
er's respect  for  law,  186-188 ;  cor- 
poral punishment  abolished,  187; 
self-culture  the  aim  of  education, 
187 ;  danger  of  prizes  and  medals, 
188;  teacher's  influence  on  school 
morals,  188. 

School  officers,  assumption  of  teach- 
ers' rights,  62,  63;  Authority  of, 
61;  Difficulties  of,  65;  Dignity 
necessary  to,  69 ;  Duties  of,  55-70 ; 
duty  of  cooperation,  64;  Horace 
Mann,  on  power  of,  61  note;  in- 
fluence on  Reading  Circles,  278; 
mistakes  in  judgment,  67-69; 
Necessary  qualifications  of,  67,  68 ; 
no  legal  right  to  play  teacher,  62 ; 
not  teachers,  60 ;  Personal  respon- 
sibility of,  65,  66;  Powers  and 
duties  of,  57 ;  powers  given  by  law, 
60 ;  propriety  of  official  advice,  63 ; 


Relations  of  teachers  to,  51-54; 
scholarship  not  necessary,  67,  68; 
Supt.  Marble  on  power  of,  60  note. 

School  regulations,  Character  of,  61. 

Schoolhouse,  Arrangement  of,  82- 
100. 

Schoolmaster  in  Literature,  The,  275. 

Schools,  Absence  of  mystery  about, 
46,  47 ;  Ancient,  56 ;  Appointments 
necessary  to,  70;  Chartered,  58; 
Classification  in,  14,  20,  21 ;  Disci- 
pline of,  183-185 ;  Environment  of, 
34-36 ;  False  standard  of  excellence 
for,  13, 14 ;  for  training  librarians, 
180;  Importance  of,  13;  Mediaeval, 
58  ;  Moral  training  in,  181-183 ; 
Neatness  in,  38  ;  Sanitary  con- 
ditions of,  35,  36. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  Extract  from,  135 ; 
novels  in  connection  with  history, 
169. 

Scripture  proper  names,  155. 

Selections  for  Arbor  Day  exercises, 
130-140. 

Self-culture,  the  aim  of  education, 
187. 

Shades,  Advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages of,  79,  80. 

Shakspeare,  William,  Extract  from, 
133 ;  Familiarity  with,  33 ;  Words 
used  by,  148  note. 

Shenstone,  Wm.,  Extract  from,  300. 

Sills,  Height  of,  80,  81,  97. 

Site  of  school,  73,  74. 

Skeleton  leaves,  143,  144. 

Sketch  Book,  Irving's,  263. 

Skinner,  Hubert  M.,  on  Reading  Cir- 
cle work,  272,  273 ;  on  state  organ- 
ization, 274,  275. 

Skirmishes  and  Sketches,  Gail  Ham- 
ilton's, 163,  164. 

Slang,  Use  of,  166. 

Small  and  Vincent's  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  Society,  Extract  from, 
303,  304. 

Smart,  Dr.  James  H.,  Books  and 
Reading  for  the  Young,  169,  170. 

Smith,  John,  History  of  Virginia, 
260. 

Social  culture,  Importance  of,  191. 

Social  duties  of  school  children,  185. 

Social  powers,  Teachers  as,  303-305. 

Socrates,  ancient  teacher,  58. 

South  Dakota  Pupils'  Reading  Cir- 
cle, 291;  representative  courses, 
294,  295. 

Speaking,  Manner  of,  194,  195. 

Special  functions  of  teacher,  61,  62. 

Speer,  H.  C.,  on  Teachers'  Reading 
Circles,  288. 


INDEX 


335 


Spelling,  Webster's  Rules  for,  151. 

Spy,  The,  Cooper's,  263. 

Stairs  in  school  building,  100. 

Star  Spangled  Banner,  232,  233. 

"  Starvation  "  Dundas,  155. 

State  Association  Meetings,  66. 

State  Reading  Circles,  First,  269- 
271. 

State  Superintendent,  Influence  on 
Teachers'  Institute,  258. 

Statesmen,  Birthdays  of  noted,  228; 
Five  great,  262. 

Steam  heating,  114,  115. 

Stellar  Worlds  in  connection  with 
reading,  169. 

Stoddard,  Richard  Henry,  Extract 
from,  132. 

Story  of  the  Nations,  Value  of,  175. 

Stove,  Position  of,  93,  94,  98. 

Stowe,  H.  B.,  Birthday  of,  212 ;  Char- 
acters of,  176;  Work  of,  2ti4. 

Street  literature,  Evil  effects  of,  164. 

Substitutions  in  abbreviations,  158. 

Suggestions,  for  Flag  Presentation 
Day,  229-235;  for  plant  collections 
in  schools,  140-146. 

Sumner,  Charles,  Birthday  of,  228; 
Character  of,  262. 

Sumner,  Prof.  William  G.,  on  juvenile 
literature,  165-167. 

Superintendent,  Influence  of  County 
and  State,  258,  259. 

Supervision,  -when  beneficial,  63. 

Supplies,  Necessity  of,  69,  70. 

Siviss  Fam'tly  Robinson,  in  connec- 
tion with  Geography,  169. 

Syllabication,  152,  153. 

Syllogisms,  306  note. 

Sympathy  between  teachers  and  par- 
ents, 11-13,  25,  26. 

Synonyms  in  English,  148;  Books  of, 
160. 

Tact  of  teacher,  48-50. 

Tales  of  a  Traveler,  Irving's,  263. 

Taylor,  Bayard,  Birthday  of,  212. 

Teacher,  appointment  by  principal, 
64 ;  as  business  man,  308,  309 ;  as 
patriot,  309, 310 ;  as  philanthropist, 
310-313;  as  specialist,  30,  31;  atti- 
tude towards  Reading  Circles,  278, 
27!) :  Authority  of,  59-63;  Bad  influ- 
ence of  tyrannical,  186,  187;  Diffi- 
culties of,  11,  23-25 ;  Duties  of,  16, 
45-54 ;  see  Duties  of  teacher ;  Ideal, 
299;  in  mediaeval  schools,  58;  in 
place  of  parent ,  57, 58 ;  in  relation  to 
state,  300,  301 :  in  society,  313-315 ; 
Inadequate  compensation  of.  28- 
34 ;  Influence  of  cultured,  192 ;  influ- 


ence on  national  development,  315, 
316 ;  Instrumental  and  professional 
knowledge  of,  243;  knowledge  of 
educational  values,  244;  Lines  of 
study  for,  245,  246 ;  member  of  In- 
stitute, 259;  Mentor  most  signifi- 
cant term  for,  299;  necessity  of 
tact,  48-50,  307,  308;  need  of  con- 
tact with  other  teachers,  32 ;  need 
of  good  supplies,  70 ;  need  of  libra- 
ries, 32,  33,  34 ;  Nervous  strain  on, 
31  ;  Obligation  of  parent  towards, 
26,  27;  of  ancient  times,  56;  Per- 
sonal influence  of,  301-303 ;  Powers 
and  duties  of,  56-59;  Primary, 
30;  Professional,  16;  Rank  of, 
268;  relations  to  school-officers, 
51-54;  Requirements  of,  29,  31,  32, 
33 ;  Requisites  for  good,  240,  242 ; 
respect  for  law,  186-188 ;  responsi- 
bility in  school  morals,  183,  188; 
Rooms  for,  98, 102 ;  Salary  of,  66, 
67;  Shortcomings  of,  15,  16;  Spe- 
cific duties  of,  58,  59 ;  Underesti- 
mating services  of,  26, 27. 

Teachers'  Institute,  239-264;  distinc- 
tion between  it  and  normal  school, 
239,  240 ;  defined,  240 ;  knowledge, 
method,  and  true  spirit,  240-242; 
instrumental  and  professional 
knowledge,  242-244;  psychology 
and  teaching,  243,  244 ;  educational 
values,  244;  limitations  of  teach- 
ers' institute,  246,  247;  reviews, 
profitable  and  unprofitable,  247, 
248;  danger  of  quibbling,  247,  248; 
advantages  of  professional  instruc- 
tion, 249 ;  suggestions  for  instruc- 
tion in  geography,  249;  school 
management,  249,  250:  psychology 
applied  to  teaching,  250,  251 ;  class 
and  lecture  instruction,  251,  252; 
typical  work,  252 ;  ideal  two  weeks' 
course,  253 ;  difficulties  to  be  met, 
grading,  indifference,  etc.,  253- 
255 ;  aims  of  the  institute,  255, 256; 
evening  lectures,  256;  academic 
instruction,  257;  Development  of 
the  institute,  257,  258;  influence  of 
state  and  countv  superintendents, 
258,  259 ;  manuals,  258 :  members, 
259;  special  topics  of  instruction, 
260 ;  topical  exercise  on  American 
literature,  260-264;  how  affected 
by  Reading  Circles,  274. 

Teachers'  Reading  Circles,  33,  49, 
2.19,  267-288 ;  a  permanent  institu- 
tion, 276,  277;  Allen  (Dr.  J.)  on, 
271,  272;  apathy  of  teachers,  276; 
discussion  of  work,  271-273 ;  first 


336 


SCHOOL  INTERESTS  AND  DUTIES 


State  Reading  Circles,  269-271; 
helped  to  develop  American  peda- 
gogical literature,  275 ;  local  meet- 
ings, 280, 281 ;  Maintenance  of,  275 ; 
Notes  on  Teachers'  Reading  Circles, 
283-288;  Origin  of,  277;  Parker,  Col., 
on,  268;  past  decade  in  education, 
269 ;  period  of  probation,  275,  276 ; 
present  trend  of  work,  282,  283 ; 
School  officers'  and  teachers'  atti- 
tude towards,  278,  279;  Skinner, 
(H.  M.)  on,  273;  State  organiza- 
tion, 274, 275 ;  trade  and  profession 
of  teaching,  267,  268;  value  of 
work,  279,  280. 

Teacher's  relation  to  public  opinion, 
299-316;  ideal  teacher,  299,  300; 
teacher  and  state,  300,  301;  per- 
sonal influence,  301-303;  guiding 
center  in  society,  303,  304;  inter- 
action of  personal  influence,  304, 
305;  practical  results,  305-307; 
public  opinion  relating  to  school, 
307,  308;  teacher  as  man  of  busi- 
ness, patriot,  etc.,  308-316. 

Teaching,  profession  and  trade,  267. 

Temperature  of  room,  Normal,  111. 

Tennyson,  Familiarity  with,  33. 

Terminations,  derived  from  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Norman  French,  154. 

Text-books,  64,  65. 

Thackeray,  Characters  of,  176. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  207. 

Theological  phase  in  American  Lit- 
erature, 261. 

Thompson,  D'Arcy,  on  the  teacher 
in  society,  314. 

Titles,  Indiscriminate  use  of,  196. 

Toilet,  arrangements  for,  102. 

Tom  Taylor's  Tribute  to  Lincoln. 
225-227. 

Trollope,  Characters  of,  176. 

Typical  knowledge,  247,  248. 

U,  Elimination  of  letter,  151. 
Uncle   Tom's  Cabin,  Mrs.  Stowe's, 
264. 

Value  of  Reading  Circle  work,  279. 
Ventilation  of  schools,   see    School 

Hygiene,  105-117. 
Vestibules,  Position  of,  86,  87. 
Videlicet,  Abbreviation  of,  158. 
Virtues,  Mechanical,  184, 185. 

Walker,  Francis  A.,  on  juvenile  lit- 
erature, 167. 


Wardrobes,  Arrangement  of,  98,  99; 
in  city  schools,  102;  in  country 
schools,  87,  88. 

Washington,  George,  Birthday  of, 
228;  Programme  for  birthday  of, 
214;  Suggestions  for  birthday  of, 
213 ;  Teachers  of,  300. 

Washington's  Rules  of  Civility,  202- 
206. 

Waste  pipes  in  school  buildings,  87. 

Water,  in  relation  to  school  hygiene, 

120. 
Waverley,  Characters  of,  176. 

Wayland,  Francis,  on  juvenile  liter- 
ature, 167. 

Webster,  D.,  Birthday  of,  228;  char- 
acteristics of,  262 ;  Extracts  from 
speeches  of,  233,  234,  300,  301. 

Webster,  Noah,  Work  of,  264. 

Webster's  Dictionary,  as  standard, 
150-152;  International,  155,  159. 
Pictorial,  100;  Unabridged,  155. 

White,  Dr.  Emerson  E.,  on  fairy 
tales  and  fables,  177 ;  on  teacher's 
authority,  59-63. 

Whittier,  John  G.,  Birthday  of,  213; 
Extracts  from,  27,  132;  Study  of, 
262. 

Williams,  Delia  L.,  on  Teachers' 
Reading  Circles,  286. 

Willis,  N.  P.,  Extract  from,  134. 

Winans,  George  W.,  on  Teachers' 
Reading  Circles,  287,  288. 

Window  openings  in  schoolrooms, 
75,  76,  77. 

Window  sills,  Height  of,  80,  81,  97. 

Wood,  Alphonso,  on  plants,  145,  146. 

Woodshed,  Position  of,  92,  93. 

Woolsey,  Theodore  D.,  on  juvenile 
literature,  167. 

Worcester's  Dictionary,  264. 

Words,  Abbreviations  and  contrac- 
tions of,  157,  158;  derived  from 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Norman  French, 
153,  154;  Ethics  of,  147-149; 
Hybrid,  154,  155;  Misuse  of,  149; 
Order  of  meanings  of,  151,  152; 
Origin  and  history  of,  153-155; 
Pronunciation  of,  158,  159. 

Wordsworth,  William,  Extracts  from, 
39,  53,  131. 

Wright,  E.,  Extract  from,  134,  135. 

Ye,  used  for  the,  158. 
Youl,  Extract  from,  138. 
Young,  J.  B.,  on   Pupils'  Reading 
Circles,  290. 


ITTH 


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